LB 

j/ |- UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 



py 



Ji"^ 



STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER 

IN PENNSYLVANIA 



LE ROY ALBERT KING 



A THESIS 

IN EDUCATION 

PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN 

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 

THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



Reprinted from Bulletin, 192 1, No. 34 

Department of the Interior — Bureau of Education 

Washington, D. C. 

1922 



UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 



STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER 

IN PENNSYLVANIA 



A THESIS 

IN EDUCATION 

PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN 

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 

THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



LE ROY ALBERT KING 



Reprinted from Bulletin, 192 1, No. 34 

Department of the Interior — Bureau of Education 

Washington, D. C. 

1922 



H^l 



--:> 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



BULLETIN, 192], No. 34 



STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER 

IN PENNSYLVANIA 



By LE ROY ALBERT KING 

Assistant Professor of Educational Administration, University of Pennsylvania 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1922 



ADDITIONAL .COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PEOCUREB FKOM 

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOOUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 

10 CENTS PER COPY 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. — Introduction. 

Page. 

Purpose and plan ol the study 1 

Original sources and procedure followed 1 

Teacher's questionnaii-e 2 

Secondary sources 4 

The background '. 5 

Chapter IL— Social and Economic Status. 

Hen and women teachers .8 

Age of teachers ,9 

Beginning age of teachers 11 

Teachers born and reared in the open country 13 

Teachers living with parents or relatives 13 

Teachers married and single 13 

Board and lodging 14 

Teachers remaining over Saturday and Sunday in the community in which they 

teach 15 

Income apart from salary 16 

Money saved 16 

Dependents 16 

Insurance and beneficial associations 17 

Amounts expended for professional literature 17 

Chapter III. — The Teacher at Work. 

Number of pupils 18 

Number of daily recitations 19 

School libraries 21 

Accessibility to other libraries 22 

Local institutes 22 

Professional literature 23 

Supervision by county and assistant county superintendents 24 

Schools visited by school boards 26 

Community interest and support 27 

Chapter IV. — Academic and Professional Training. 

Elementary education 29 

Secondary education 30 

Professional training 33 

Academic and professional training during service 35 

Chapter V. — Certification. 

Certificates held by teachers in one-teacher schools 38 

Certificates held by teachers in schools of two and more than two teachers 42 

Certificates held by teachers in borough elementary schools 42 

Analysis of the practice of certification by counties 43 

in 



IV CONTENTS. 



Certificates over a three-year period 45 

Teachers' certificates in relation to experience 46 

Certificates and age of teachers 47 

Academic preparation and professional training as related to certification 48 

Certificates of teachers from standpoint of supplementary training during service 49 

Chapter VI. — Experience and Tenure. 

Stability oi the teaching force 53 

Stability of teaching force over a three-year period 55 

New teachers Avithout experience and experienced teachers in new positions. . 57 

Chapter VII. — Salaries. 

One-teacher schools in townships 60 

Schools of two and more than two teachers in townships 63 

Borough elementary schools 64 

Length of school term in townships and boroughs 66 

Salary in relation to certificates G8 

Bases on which school boards raise salaries 71 

Salary of men and women teachers 72 

Relation of salary to years of experience 73 

Age of men and women teachers as related to salary 76 

Years of education as related to salary 78 

Chapter VIII. — Summary 79 

List of references , 84 



STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER IN 

PENNSYLVANIA. 



ter I. 
INTRODUCTION. 



PURPOSE AND PLAN OF THE STUDY. 

The purpose of this study is to learn the true status of the rural teacher in Penn- 
sylvania. By the rural teacher is meant the teacher in the one-teacher schools in the 
open country. The study is restricted for the most part to the facts and conditions 
pertaining to the teachers in the one-teacher schools. In some instances data will 
also be given regarding the teachers in two-teacher schools, villages, and boroughs, 
either for the purpose of helping to verify the conclusions concerning the teachers in 
the one-teacher schools, or merely to show contrasts and significant similarities. 

As to scope, this study endeavors to collect all the data possible relating to (1) the 
personal, social, and economic status of the teacher; (2) conditions under which the 
work is conducted; (3) academic and professional preparation and training; (4) cer- 
tification; (5) experience in teaching and tenure; and (6) salary. Each of these 
aspects will receive detailed consideration in single chapters as designated. 

The material in general will be treated on the basis of the counties reporting as a 
composite whole, for the purpose of revealing the situation for the entire State, but 
in some cases individual counties will be used for more specific interpretations. It 
is not primarily the purpose to compare the data herein set forth with those of other 
States; in the first place, because of the very limited amount available in this field, 
and in the second place, because of the time and expense that would be incurred in 
trying to obtain such material from other States. Again, it is not the aim in dealing 
with the problems concerning the rural school teacher to set up a definite program 
for the State, but rather to present some conclusions and make such suggestions as 
the facts in this study may safely warrant. 

ORIGINAL SOURCES AND PROCEDURE FOLLOWED. 

(1) Upon investigating what material was accessible bearing upon the topic, it was 
found that, on account of the meager supply, a questionnaire would have to be formu- 
lated in order to get the information necessary for the study of many of its essential 
phases. Under the direction of Prof. Harlan Updegraff, with the assistance of the 
fellow members of the seminar in educational administration at the University of 
Pennsylvania, a tentative questionnaire was framed and distributed among the teach- 
ers in several townships in the vicinity of Philadelphia. After a number of trials 
and modifications of the original questionnaire, caused both by the type of answers 
given by the teachers, and by the tabulation of these replies in a preliminary study, 
the questionnaire was finally formulated as here given. 

1 



2 STATUS OF EURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

TEACHER'S QUESTIONNAIRE. 

1. Educational and professional training: 

(a) Did you attend a one-room rural school? How many years? 

A rural school of more than one room? How- 
many years? 

(&) Did you attend a -village, borough, or city elementary school of eight grades? 

. . •. How many years? 

(c) In the blank spaces l:>eIow "state further educational preparation, if any. 



Exact length of attendance. 



Did you 
graduate? 



Diploma or 
certificate. 



High sehool 

A cademy 

Normal school 

Spring or summer normal course. 
Summer college course 



Years and months. 

Years and months. 

Years and months. 

Weeks 

Weeks 



Have you had any of the above academic or professional training since you began 

teaching? Where? How long? 

Kind? What would induce you to get a better academic 

or professional training for teaching? 

What kind of certiiicate do you hold? 

Exj>erience in teaching. (Fill out blank spaces below.) 



Rural, l-TGom school 

Rural, more than l-roora school. . . 

Village 

Borough , 

City 



Number of sehool years. 
Number of school years. 
Number of sehool years. 
Number of school years. 
Number of school years. 



Number of places. 
Number of places. 
Number of places. 
Number of places. 
Number of places. 



(5. Are you now teaching in a township? In a village? In 

a one-room rural school? If more than one room, how many 

rooms? 

6. How many pupils in your schoolroom? How many recitations or 

classes do you teach in a day? How many grades? 

What grades? 

7. What year did you begin teaching? Wlaat was your age when you 

began teaching? Is this your first year? Age? 

Sex? Were you born and reared in the country? 

Inavillage? Boroiigh? City? 

8. Are you married? .. . How many children? If unmarried, 

is any one dei^endent on you for financial aid? How many? 

What amount per year? Do you live with your 

parents or relatives while t4?aching? Do you stay over Sunday in 

the community in which you teach? 

9. What is your salary per month this year? How many months? 

What was your salary per month last year? How many months? 

" Did you have any other income last year besides your teaching 

salary? If so, how much per year? 

10. What was your salary per month the first year you taught? How 

often have you had your salary increased? On what basis does your 

district raise salaiies? , 

11. Do you pay board? How much per month? How many 

months? How much per week? How many weeks? 



12. 



Did you save moaey on your salary last year? Approximately how 

much?. Do you think you can save money on your salary tliis 

year? How much ? Do you carry life insurance? 

Cost per year? Do you belong to a teacher's protective or beneficial 

organization?. Cost per year? 



o:isrTii-ODU*CTiO]sr. 3 

IS.. Axe you a siibsca-iber i&x a ^pedagegjeal or professional -EQagazine?. 

Name? Cost?,.,.., ^_Do you invest any other 

money for professional literature? Kind? Cost? . . 

Do you have any inference books besides your regular class textbooks? 

What Idnd? Do you have a sdhool library? :4^fs?oxi- 

mate number of books? .,., Have you access to any ether library tor 

books or materials f oir iteaehing? .,.....,.. Does yoiu- district hold local insti- 
tutes? , . . . Are you a member of a reading circle? 

14. Do you take part in a parent-teacher's association or any other kind of com- 

munity activity held in your school building? iCind? Is 

ithe schoolhouse used fox any kind of community meeting at night? 

Kind? ...... How many homes of patrons do you ;think you visited last 

year? How many \dsits, approximately, were maflio by parents to 

your school last year? 

15. How marHy hours last year did the county superintendent supervise your teach- 

ing? How many hours, the assistant county superintendents? 

Did your school board visit your school? ..,,.. How many? 

How often? 

16. How much consideration does the school board in your district give to the county 

superintendent's or other 9U}>ervi8or's judgment at the time of a teacher's 

leleetion or re-election? (Answer — ^None, little, or much) Do you 

believe you will be retained .as a teacher next year in your district; or in other 
words do you have a feeling: of security in your position? Why? 



During the school year ending June, 1918, the questionnaires were distributed 
among the teachers in the one-teacher rural scfhools of 18 counties of the State. These 
counties were selected at random, with the exception tbat special precaution was 
taken that the eastern, central, and western parts of the State should be represented. 
It was also planned to include 3 counties in which State normal schools are located. 
As there are 66 counties in Pennsylvania under county supervision, excluding Phila- 
delphia County, and since 13 of these ihave State normal schools, it will be seen that 
this is a fairly proportionate representation. The size of the counties was also taken 
into account, so that an equitable distribution of large and small counties should be 
represented in the study. 

These questionnaires were distributed at the teachers' institutes of the different 
counties, and the teachers are represented who voluntarily remained either during 
the session of the institute or the intermission. In the majority of the counties the 
writer supervised the distribution of the questionnaires; in cases where it was inipos- 
sible for him to do this, cafeiuily prepared instructions were sent to the county 
superintendents to be read to the teachers, «o that the questionnaires woifld 'be 
handled in each county in as uniform a manner as possible in order to avoid the 
least variation in procedure. 

The teachers were asked to fill out the questioniaalires but were instructed not to 
insert their names, in order to prevent any hesitancy on their part in giving the facts 
requested; likewise the county superintendents were assured that their counties 
would not be referred to by name. These precautions were taken to make the study 
•as accurate and scientific as possible. From the 18 counties there were 1,450 replies 
Teceived, of which 1,110, or 76.5 per cent, were given by women teachers, and 340, 
or 23.5 per cent, by men — an average of 80 replies for each county represented. Th-e 
number of teachers from the different counties who replied averaged 62 per cent of the 
teachers enrolled in one-teacher schools in each county respectively. 

Although all the teacheirs im each of the 18 oounties ^did not reply to tlie 'question- 
aaire, there is sufiicient evideace to establish the belief that those who responded 
constitute a very fair sanq>ling of the teachers of each county represented. Of the 
teachers constituting this study, 45 per cent hold provisional oeitificates, 24.7 per 
■cent professional, 12 per cent permanent, 18 pei' cent noitmal school oei'tificates or 
diplomas, and approximately 0..3 per cent college provigtonal or peimianent certifi- 
cates. The smaller percentage of teachers hoHing provisional oertificates and the 



4 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

larger percentage of teachers holding permanent certificates and normal school certifi- 
cates and diplomas, as compared with the per cent for the State as a whole (Chapter 
VII), would alone seem to justify this assumption. Consequently, any unfavorable 
criticism of rural schools of Pennsylvania can not be gainsaid on the ground that an 
inferior sampling of the teaching group had been made. 

The superintendents in some of the counties examined the answered questionnaires 
and stated that in view of their knowledge of the teachers they believed the replies 
to be accurate and representative of the teaching force of their respective counties. 
The complete and illuminating way in which the questions were answered, especially 
those pertaining to the social and economic status of the teacher, also bears out the 
judgment of the county superintendents. It is the belief of the writer that the 
interest manifested by the teachers, after being assured that the main purpose of 
the questionnaire was to get the facts which might eventually be used for improving 
the status of the rural school teacher, is evidence that their replies are accurate and 
reliable. 

The replies of the teachers were completely tabulated on 18 record sheets — one 
for each county represented — outlined so as to set forth clearly the information under 
such headings as academic and professional preparation, teaching experience, salaries, 
economic conditions, etc. Each teacher's questionnaire was given a number to 
coincide with the number on the county record sheet in order to check up or trace 
an individual teacher's record. These county record sheets made possible the tabu- 
lation not only of the total record for each county, but also of the combined record 
sheet for all the cases, making readily accessible each item covered by the data for 
the composite group. 

It will be observed throughout the study that there is considerable variation 
between the total number of teachers replying to the questionnaire and those answer- 
ing individual items. Percentages are usually made on the basis of the number of 
teachers answering the particular question, rather than upon the whole number of 
teachers reporting. 

(2) Besides the use of the questionnaire above referred to, it was necessary to 
obtain further original data directly from the county superintendents. They were 
asked to send a complete directory of the teachers under their supervision for the 
school years 1918-19 and 1919-20, designating those who were teachers in one-teacher 
and two-teacher schools in the townships. They also indicated after each teacher's 
name (1) the kind of certificate held, (2) whether a new teacher without experience, 
or (3) an experienced teacher transferred to another school, and (4) the teacher's 
salary. Data regarding these phases of the status of approximately 5,100 teachers 
were submitted by the superintendents of 30 counties through their official directories. 
The number of counties and teachers covered by this material will be referred to 
specifically throughout the discussion. 

(3) A questionnaire was sent to each principal of the 13 State normal schools to 
give and corroborate certain statistics pertaining directly to the training and certifi- 
cating of rural teachers. Specific reference will be made to this material in certain 
parts of the context. 

SECONDARY SOURCES. 

Among the secondary sources furnishing data, the State reports issued by the super- 
intendent of public instruction should be mentioned, particularly the one for 1918. 
Since the data in the State reports, for the different counties and for the entire State, 
deal Avith all the teachers under county supervision as a composite whole, the informa- 
tion was found quite limited, in so far as it was directly applicable to the problem 
at hand — the teacher in the one-teacher rural school. ' 

I Rep. Sup. of Pub. Instruction, Pennsylvania, 1918. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

The report on rural schools by a committee of the Pennsylvania State Educational 
Association, issued in 1914, contributed to the formulation of parts of this study. ^ 

Suggestions were obtained from Coffman's "The Social Composition of the Teaching 
Force," particularly in reference to the social and economic status of the teacher.^ 

The legal basis for this study is found largely in the Pennsylvania School Code. * 
In the case of all other sources and references used, due and proper recognition will 
be given as each one occurs in the various chapters. 

The statistical procedure used in this study is based largely on Thorndike's "Mental 
and Social Measurements* and Rugg's "Statistical Methods Applied to Education, ^ 
in which the terms and processes used are clearly defined. 

THE BACKGROUND. 

The 10,038 teachers in the one-teacher schools of Pennsylvania constitute approxi- 
mately one-fourth of the entire number of teachers in the State and one-half of the 
teachers under county supervision. The number of teachers in one-teacher rural 
schools is larger than the total number of teachers of all classes in each of 23 different 
States of the United States and is approximately equivalent to the total number of 
teachers in the States of Arkansas, Mississippi, and West Virginia. '' With the excep- 
tion of Iowa, with approximately 11,000, * and Illinois, with 10,105 ^ one-teacher 
schools, Pennsylvania ranks highest among all the States in the number of teachers 
in one-teacher schools. The next States in rank are New York, with 8,500 one- 
teacher schools; ^° Minnesota, with 8,174; '^ and Wisconsin, with 7,000. '^ 

These one-teacher schools are distributed for each of the 66 counties of the State 
(Philadelphia excluded) in the accompanying Table 1. It will be seen that 10,038, 
or 42.2 per cent, of the entire number of teachers under county supervision — namely, 
23,807 — are teaching in one-teacher schools, and that approximately 2,394, or 11.3 
per cent, are teaching in two-teacher schools. ^^ The range of the number of teachers 
in the one-teacher schools of the different counties extends from 22 to 361 and in 
per cent from 8 to 96 of the total number of teachers in each county. The median 
county has 51 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools, indicating that one-half, 
or 33 of the counties, have from 51 to 96 per cent of their teachers in one-teacher schools. 
It will be noted that counties 23 and 2, which contain large cities, have only 8 and 
10 per cent of their teachers in one-teacher schools. On the other hand, counties 29 
and 47 have over 90 per cent of their teachers in these schools. Both of these counties 
are very sparsely populated, having a teacher in a one-teacher school for every 126 
and 159 inhabitants. 

2 Rep. of Rural Educ, committee of the Pa. Educ. Assoc, Harrisburg, Dec, 1914, Part IV, pp. 37-47. 

3 Coffman, L. D.— The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Teachers College, Columbia 
University. 

< School Laws and Appendix for Pennsylvania, 1919. 

s Thorndike, E. L.— Mental and Social Measiu-ements, Teachers College, Columbia University. 

'Rugg, H. O. — Statistical Methods Applied to Education, Houghton Mifflin Co. 

'Rep. U. S. Commis. of Educ, 1917, vol. 2, p. 76. 

8 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, P. E. McClenahan. 

9 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, F. G. Blair. 

10 EngeUiardt, "The Teaching Profession in the State of New York" (unpublished). Will appear in 
the Annual Report for 1918-19 of the Assistant Commissioner of Education, New York State. 

11 Rep. Commissioner of Education, James M. McConnell. 

12 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, C. P. Cary. 

13 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction for Pa., 1918, pp. 608-610. Becht, J. George, "A Study of School Con- 
solidation and Transportation." Sixth An. Schoolmen's Week Proc, p. 197. 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



Table 1. — Number of eleimntwry teachers under couinty mpervision— Number ami per cent 
in one-teacher schools, Uvo-teaoher schools, more than two-teacher schools in villages and 
boroughs — Population and area in square miles. 



County. 


"3 

as 

«| 

o 


1 

O m 

— o 

si 

2; 


6 

"o 
o 

43 

%% 

12 
114 
38 
54 
36 
36 
60 
40 
68 
60 
110 
8 
12 
28 
68 
26 
78 
12 
38 
44 
24 
28 
18 
28 
20 
90 
18 
72 
4 
20 
18 
32 
30 

20 
74 
30 
26 
62 
22 
30 
28 
20 
« 
24 
56 
2 

46 

22 

8 

4 

12 

88 

12 

54 

4 

8 

18 

16 

26 

16 


Jh '*^ J^ 

ill 


.si 
li 

fe-2 


L 

o 

g-g 

I- * 


H 

96 

5 ^ o 


a'. 

O w 

Is 


Q,C3 03 

o22 


(-1 

<a 

^ . 

< 


1. 
S 2 

CO 




221 
1, 722 
435 
403 
348 
604 
301 
463 
419 
351 
687 
5S 
276 
313 
468 
282 
560 
177 
224 
373 
290 
331 
363 
227 
378 
749 
64 
307 
84 
272 
251 
443 
349 
90 
222 
650 
184 
247 
371 
1, 206 
321 
211 
356 
127 
171 
486 
48 
368 
291 
201 
70 
126 
705 
128 
477 
124 
283 
306 
109 
229 
233 


151 

185 

223 

128 

223 

335 

128 

219 

189 

222 

170 

22 

55 

159 

225 

172 

241 

84 

113 

311 

155 

128 

28 

50 

201 

177 

43 

197 

77 

174 

170 

204 

167 

69 

65 

361 

103 

119 

132 

150 

197 

92 

207 

62 

102 

113 

46 

151 

126 

132 

50 

108 

155 

82 

237 

72 

148 

145 

66 

161 

lis 


58 

1,423 

174 

221 

89 
233 
113 
204 
162 

69 
407 

28 
209 
126 
175 

84 
241 

81 

73 

18 
111 
175 
317 
149 
157 
482 
3 

38 
3 

78 

63 
207 
152 

15 
137 
215 

51 
102 

187 
1,034 

94 

91 

129 
59 
45 

317 

"'in' 

143 

61 

16 

6 

462 
34 

186 
48 

127 

143 
27 
42 
99 


69 

10 
51 
32 
64 
55 
43 
47 
45 
63 
25 
38 
20 
51 
48 
61 
43 
47 
50 
83 
53 
39 
8 
22 
53 
24 
67 
64 
92 
64 

46 
48 
77 
29 
56 
56 
48 
35 
12 
61 
43 
58 
49 
60 
23 
96 
41 
43 
66 
71 
86 
22 
64 
50 
58 
52 
47 
61 
70 
51 


8 
7 
9 

13 

10 
6 

20 
9 

16 

17 

16 

14 
4 
9 

15 
9 

14 
7 

17 

12 
8 
8 
5 

12 
5 

12 

.28 

23 
5 
7 
7 
7 
9 
7 
9 
11 
16 
11 
14 
2 
9 
13 
6 

14 
12 
4 
13 
8 
4 
6 
10 
12 
9 
11 
3 
3 
6 
15 
11 
7 


23 
83 
40 
55 
26 
39 
37 
44 
39 
20 
59 
48 
76 
40 
37 
30 
43 
66 
33 

5 
39 
53 
87 
66 
42 
64 

5 
13 

3 

29 
25 
47 
4:5 
16 
62 
33 
28 
41 
51 
86 
30 
44 
36 
45 
26 
€5 

"'66' 
49 
30 
23 
4 
66 
27 
39 
39 
45 
47 
24 
19 
42 


34,319 

839, 134 

67, 880 

56, 162 

38, 879 

87, 151 

49, 555 

54, 526 

76, 530 

51,916 

110,649 

7,644 

52, 846 

43,426 

75, 619 

36, 638 

74, 294 

23, 773 

48, 467 

48, 785 

44, 176 

57, 720 

79, 369 

35,.S71 

48, 992 

141,260 

9, 435 

47,975 

9,703 

28, SS2 
31,443 
66, 210 
53, 932 

259, 750 
65, 333 

108, 348 
33, 752 
40, 325 
48, 832 

198, 489 
48, 953 
33, 324 
62, 429 
19, 019 
22, 941 
92, 531 
7, 351 
65, 437 
36, 965 
24, 135 
8,033 

29, 729 
145, 948 

16, 800 
67,717 
11, 293 
37, 746 
42, 829 
1 Iti, 249 

30, 925 
28, 493 


227 
4,536 
308 
431 
174 
263 
387 
248 
405 
234 
651 
347 
961 
273 
336 
213 
308 
2.S3 
428 
157 
285 
451 
2,834 
717 
243 
798 
219 
243 
126 
166 
185 
324 
322 
3,764 
1,005 
300 
327 
338 
369 
1,323 
247 
362 
301 
316 
224 
818 
159 
433 
293 
182 
160 
275 
942 
204 
285 
157 
255 
295 
246 
192 
241 


528 

725 

553 

429 

1,026 

865 

534 

1,145 

608 

790 

717 

392 

406 

1,146 

777 

601 

1,142 

878 

479 

1,038 

528 

521 

185 

806 

781 

795 

423 

751 

402 

574 

918 

829 

666 

392 

451 

941 

360 

360 

344 

892 

1,200 

987 

700 

398 

623 

484 

130 

372 

454 

564 

544 

1,071 

777 

311 

1,034 

458 

824 

1,142 

305 

661 

902 


3.5 




3.9 




2.5 


Beaver 


3.3 


Bedford 


4.6 


Berks 


2.6 


Blair 


4.1 




5.2 


Bucks 


3.2 


Butler 


3.5 


Cambria 


4.2 




17.8 




7.4 




7.2 


Cliester 


3.4 


Clarion 


3.5 


Clearfield 


4.7 


Clinton 


10.4 




4.2 


Crawford 


3.5 


Cumberland 


3.4 
4.1 


Deiaware 


0.6 


Elk 


10.1 


■Erie 


3.! 


Fayette 


4.S 




9.8 


Franklin 


3. a 


Fulton 


5.2 


Greene 


3.; 


Huntingdon 

•Indiana 


5.4 

4.(1 


Jefferson 


4.C 




5.7 


Lackawanna — 

Lancaster 

Lawrence 


6.S 
2.f 
3.'1 




2.£ 


Lehigh ... 


3.1 


Luzerne 


5.£ 


Lycoming 


6. 


McKean 


10.' 


Mercer 


3.C 


Mifflin 


6.^ 


Monroe 


6. 


llantgomery 

Montour 


4.; 

2. 


Northampton 

Northumberland.. . 
Perry 


2.' 
3.f 
4. 


Pike 


10 


Potter 


9.' 


Schuylkill 


5.( 


Snyder 


3. 


Somerset 


4. 


Sullivan 


6. 


Susquehanna 


5.( 

7. 


Union 


4.( 


Venango 


4 


Warren 


7. 



1 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction for Pa., 1918, p. 610. 

2 Ibid, p. 60S. Bccht, ./. George, A Study of School Consolidation and Transportation, Sbcth An. School- 
men's Week Proc., p. 197. 

8 Ibid. 

^SmuU's Legislative Hand Book of Penn.sylvania, p. 389. Population mcludes only school districts 
under county superintendents' supervision. 
5 Geograpliical Gazetteer, Raud-McNally. 



IlsrTRODUCTION. 



Table 1. — Nuiriber of elementary teachers under county supervision — Number and per 
cent in one-teacher schools, two-teacher schools, more than two-teacher schools in villages 
and boroughs — Population and area in square miles — Continued. 





o 


i 






i 


A 


sv. 


"o 


u < 


c 


h 






8 


.So 


as 


°4S 
o 

.s| 


S-§ 


.a A 


.2 55 


fl o 


o3 


Ol O 


County. 


(=1 a 


^V, 


T,fS 


J^. 


Ss 


^M 




&.§ 


^Sfe 


•21 


as 




S 


M^. 


^■3 


^ g o 


s^ 


S^ 


5 ^ o 
o o o 


•S'g 


Poo 


?-:fi 




'i 


as 


^1 


isl 


03 


03 


^^■y 


03 3 




» 


rt 03 




&H 


•^ 


:z; 


•^ 


i 


(i 


Ph 


rt 


Ph 


< 


CC 


Waslilngt.oii 


761 


280 


100 


381 


37 


13 


50 


115,287 


411 


862 


3.1 


Wayne 


246 

966 


150 
296 


14 
144 


82 
526 


ei 

31 


6 
15 


35 

54 


29,236 
206, 517 


194 
697 


739 
1, 039 


4.9 


Westmoreland 


3.5 




130 
571 


67 
350 


12 
50 


51 

171 


52 
61 


% 
9 


39 
30 


15, 509 
91,655 


231 

262 


397 
903 


5.9 


York....". 


2.5 






Total 


23,807 


10, 038 


2,394 


11,375 


4, .222 


11. 3 


46. 5 


4, 595, 643 




44, 832 














22-361 
150 


2-144 
26 


0-1,423 
111 


8-96 
51 


2-28 
9 


0-87 
39 




126-4, 536 
295 




2.4-17.8 


Median county 






4 2 


25 percentile 




88 


14 


51 


40 


7 


28 




231 




3.4 


75 percentile 




197 


50 


186 


61 


13 


50 




411 




6.1 


Quartile deviation. . 




54.5 


18 


67.5 


10.5 


3 


11 




90 




1.4 







The table shows that the number and per cent of teachers in one-teacher schools 
in the counties of the State vary greatly on basis of the 1910 census rural population, 
ranging in number of inhabitants per teacher from 126 in the most sparsely populated 
county to 4,536 in the county with the largest population. The population per 
teacher in the median county is 295. 

Since the size of the counties in Pennsylvania ranges from 130 to 1,200 square miles, 
it is not surprising that the range in square miles for each teacher in a one-teacher 
school extends from 2.4 to 17.8, with the median county showing 4.2 square miles. 
In the case of the 10 counties with an area of 1,000 square miles or more the per cent 
of one-teacher schools ranges from 31 to 86. For example, in counties 20 and 52 the 
county superintendents have 311 out of 373, or 83 per cent, and 108 out of 126, or 86 
per cent, of the teachers under their supervision in one-teacher schools. On the other 
hand, counties 17 and 64 of this group of large counties have 241 out of 560 and 296 
out of 966 teachers in one-teacher schools, percentages of 43 and 31, respectively. 

Some facts concerning the teacher situation in Pennsylvania. 



Number. 



Per cent. 



A. NUMBER OF TEA_CHERS IN 1918-19. 

In state (excluding Philadelphia and Pittsburgh) 

Under county superintendents ' supervision 

In villages and boroughs 

In one-teacher schools 

In two-teacher schools 

B. NUMBER OF NEW TEACHERS. 

Under county superintendents' supervision, 1919-20 1 

Under county superintendents' supervision, 1918-19 (without experience) 

In one-teacher schools, 1919-20 (without experience) 

In one-teacher schools (experienced in a new position) 

C. NORMAL-SCHOOL GRADUATES. 

In 1918 

In 1919 

in 1920 

Estimated number of normal graduates entering rural schools in 1919 ''■ 



35 


641 




23 


807 


100 


11, 


375 


47 


10, 038 


42 


2, 


394 


11 


5 


500 


23 


4 


044 


17 


3 


200 


32 


3, 


900 


39 


1 


964 
750 
650 
248 




1 




1 






15 



1 study in Teacher Shortage, Department of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania, 1919-20 (unpubUshed). 

2 Number estimated, based on the repUes to a questionnaire to the normal-school principals. 



Chapter II. 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. 



Before going into the study of the rural teachers from the point of view of their 
educational preparation, certification, experience, and salary, we shall consider 
the more personal factors relating to their social and economic life. It is hoped 
that by following this procedure we may have a better conception of rural teachers 
as such, and thus be better able to interpret the conditions and situations later revealed 
in the major part of this study. 

MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS. 

In the accompanying Table 2 the data obtained from the directories issued by 
the county superintendents for the present j ear, 1919-20, show that 76 per cent of 
the 2,743 teachers in the one- teacher elementary schools are women and 24 per cent 
are men. Comparing these percentages with the State averages for 1918— for women 
82.4 and for men 17.6 — ^it will be seen that in these 20 counties represented the per 
cent of men teachers surpasses the State average for men in 1918 by 6.4. ' It is inter- 
esting to note further that the percentage of men teachers in these counties is also 
approximately 4 per cent higher than that for the United States as a whole in 1917, 
which was 19.7 per cent.^ 

Table 2. — Distribution by number and per ce7it of men and ivomen teachers in one-teacher 
schools of 20 counties in 1919-20. 



No. of county. 


Men. 


Women. 


Total. 


Per cent 
men. 


Per cent 
women. 


1 


41 
30 
20 
17 
30 

3 
13 
18 
53 
47 
40 
19 
18 
43 

6 
41 
71 

8 

2 
137 


178 
95 
160 
152 
174 
21 
27 
196 
94 
102 
46 
50 
49 
80 
94 
75 
172 
35 
102 
184 


219 

125 

180 

169 

204 

24 

40 

214 

147 

149 

86 

69 

67 

123 

100 

116 

243 

43 

104 

321 


19 
24 
11 
10 
15 
13 
33 

8 
36 
32 
47 
28 
27 
35 

6 
35 
29 
19 

2 
43 


81 


2 


76 


3 


89 


4 


90 


5 


85 


6 . 


87 


7 


67 


8 . 


92 


9 


64 


10 . 


68 


11 


53 


12 


72 


13 


73 


14 


65 


15 


94 


16 


65 


17 


71 


18 


81 


19. 


98 


20 


57 






Total 


657 




2,086 


2,743 


24 


76 








2-137 
13 
20 
41 
14 


21-196 

49 

94 

160 

56 




2-47 
11 
24 
33 
11 


.'■>3-98 






65 






73 






87 






10.5 









1 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction for Pa., 1918, p. 633. 

« Rep. U. S. Commis. of Educ, 1916-1918, Vol. Ill, p. 16. 



SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. 9 

While there is very little available material from other States concerning the per 
cent of men and women teachers in the rural schools grouped apart from all the teach- 
ers in the public schools, nevertheless what we do have shows that Pennsylvania 
has a higher percentage than certain other States. For example, a survey of Nebraska 
in 1915 showed the percentage of men teachers in the rural schools to be 10.3 and 
of women 89.7.* In 1918, among the white teachers in county schools in Virginia, 
9 per cent were men and 91 per cent, women. ^ 

A study of the per cent of men and women teachers in the separate counties as shown 
in the table reveals a wide variation. On the one hand, counties 11 and 20 show 
47 and 43 per cent men teachers, respectively, comprising nearly one-half of the 
teachers in the one-teacher schools. On the other hand, in county 19 only 2 per 
cent of its 104 teachers are men, and in counties 8 and 15 the men teachers are 8 
and 6 per cent, respectively. From these facts it. will be seen that the range of the men 
teachers extends from 2 to 47 per cent, while for the Women the range is high, extending 
from 53 to 98 per cent. 

From the data at hand it is difficult to account for the large variation in the num- 
ber and per cent of men and women teachers in the different counties. It happens, 
however, that the counties having the highest per cent of men teachers are usually 
classified as agricultural counties. Through the questionnaire it was learned that 
in the counties having a high proportion of men teachers the majority were married, 
lived on farms, and frequently reported substantial incomes in addition to their 
salaries received for teaching. Owing to such living conditions, teachers remain 
in the teaching service, thus bringing about greater stability in the teaching force. 

AGE OF TEACHERS. 

Of the 1,446 cases represented in Table 3, 1,109 are women and 337 men, with ages 
ranging from 18 to 65 years. The median age of the women teachers is 22, and of the 
men, 26.7, showing a difference on an average of over 4 years. Although the range 
in the age of men teachers is practically the same as that of the women, yet there is 
greater variation and a wider distribution about the midpoint in the case of the men 
teachers than in that of the women, as evidenced by the quartile deviation of 10 in 
the first case and 3.5 in the second. The upper 25 per cent of the men and women 
teachers are beyond 41 and 27 years of age, respectively, indicating more conclusively 
the higher age of men teachers. 

The median age for the combined group of rural teachers in one-teacher schools is 
22.8 years, which is approximately the same as the median age for the rural teachers 
in Nebraska,^ and South Dakota in 1918,® 21.01 years and 22.14 years, respectively. 
The average age for the rural teacher in one-teacher schools in New York State in 
1919 was 27 years.'' 

3 The Rural Teacher of Nebraska, U. S. Bui., 1919, No. 20, p. 21. 
* Va. Pub. Sch. Survey, 1919, p. 135. 

5 The Rural Teacher of Nebraska, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1919, No. 20, p. 23. 

6 The Educational System of South Dakota, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 211. 
' Engelhardt, F. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. 



i'O 



STATUS or RURAL TEACHER. IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



i 

1 

1 


i 

O 

1 


« 


t^ t^ OC4»O«OiO00,-^t^C^C0C0 




<N 














(N 
























t^ 


•.H^COt^C^OtOC^^-i-H^OIi-FtC^WWC^-^* 


^ 
















tl- 












o 


^ OOf-t^—l >o 


'^ 


^ 


»Hco<Neoc<o«-i 

• 








^^ . 








so 












>.1 


C-)rt-.M00T)<TOtDrtCOC-J-*rt.-l 




CM CM C-l -^ .-1 


CM -1 


-^ 


00 












-n 






00 

to 












« 


m CO CO to CO CD M W r-l 












■ M 








CM 


-^ 






s 












CN 


cot^-it~— ii-ura— ■ 


!M CO r-. .-H r-l 


^-IrH 


^ 




rt O) 






■* 












- 


lOIMtO -^O) 


'^ 


'^ 


'^ 


COWrt CO 




CM 




-^ 


'^ 






-t(< 

C<5 












"3 


C.^OC0O'»*<*O^C^Ci«O'Oi0O(MOC^0.-HC0Tti00C3i.-H^C0r-H 


o 


22.0 

20.1 

27.1 

3,5 


i 
t 

a 


o 
t 

EH 


» 


i-H 'i**COTI* ^ 


(NPl ■* 


^ ^ 


CO <N N CO .-( CO <N i-H ^ 


-' 


CO 


















t- 


O<ro»-HN 


rt^-COrt 


.-H— ('♦CSl 


CM 


cq 




<N 


CO 




M 


eo 

CO 












to 


"^ 


CO 


J-.-HSM 










•^ 




COr-l 


CO -H 0» CM CM ■* CM 




05 
CM 












>o 


CO-a<T(100(N00-*IMi-H(NfH 


^* '-H 




COrH — 1 ,-1 




CM CM CM 




>o 












^ 


-H^ 


CM 




■^ 










— ( 








-H rt 






"^ 








OS 












M 


evi .-1 rt .^ -1 .-1 


















"* 












'^ 








05 












(N 






--I 






oomN 


rtCM,H 


lN<NCOrt >OiO(NCO 


CMCM—I 


■* 












- 






-* 








-( 








•^ 




•^ 






" 


-* 




-' 




o 












Total. 


05^1DC^Q0t^0JtD.-HC0t0t^tDt0«D>«05'-H>noO.Q0-* C0^3 CO 


-CO 

CO 


26.7 
21.7 
41.8 

10. d 


Total 
distri- 
bution 
(18 

ties). 


cjr--ci^a>Cit^toc'jcococotoc^'Mcococ^iojr-H.-..^(MOir-i 


! 


22.8 

20.3 

29.6 

4.7 








OC 


o 


s 


5 


S3 


?^ 


■* 

N 


^ 


s 


Si 


OC 

cs 




^ 




^ 


tc 


OC 




cs 


5 


tc 


OC 


5 


^ 




tc 




"3 

o 


1 




J 


% 

j 

c5 


)> 



BEGINNING AGE OF TEACHEES. 

Table 4 shows that the median age at whieh the i,421 teachers represented began 
teaching is 19.2, and that the range extends from J5 to 32 years. The 123 teachers 
who reported their teaching as beginning earlier tlian at the age of IS must have begun 
their work before the enactment of the Pennsylvania School Code of 1911. Twenty- 
six teachers reported as having entered the teaching profession at 25 or more years 
of age. The middle 50 per cent of this group ranges from 18.4 to 20.5 years, meaning 
that 710 teachers, or half the group, began teaching between these years. 



12 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 





• 


^ 


HO 1 t^ CO CO C^ IN (N t- <D 1 




"cs 


2J = 


:' -"J* 03 o cc '^ti ci o ^ 






-*-( 1 1-1 r-l rt -1 1 




o 








E" 


'^ 






■-(.- 


^ 












*^H 




(N 




















M 


c 


i 
















coc 


1 






Ii-lrH 






























CO 


c 


i 
















(N - 




IrH 




■ ^ 










O 






















C 


















iH.- 










; 1^ 








C31 




















(M 


c 


3 
















coe> 


) 










^H 1-1 




00 


















O) 


c 
















"5C 


5 






rtrt 




—I 




C 














s 


OOc^i 


) (N 


-HrtrH 










C 














COC^ 


1 tH 


















lO 




















b£ 


(M 


c 


















CS 






















tiO 














C 


^ 


IM O 

c 








—11-1 


(M— 1 


•a 


























o 




t~o 




CO 


CO CO CO 1—1 CO 


W 


CO 
(N 


IM 












■*0( 


COUOi-IOtJKMCOIO 




C^ 


»o 






n 








;5;c 


,-(CDC^':Dt^iOCO00 












(N 


-<0C 






(NtC 


t^<N<Mi-(lO(NrJIC^ 




o 


^^ 


■-I T-l T}< ,H M -H 




(N 


IM u- 






co-« 


COr^h-OSCOOCiC'W 




Oi 




T-.rHWCOC^^<NrO 




*"* 


Cs 






lOO- 


05lOosO'-H'^^-co 




00 


(M 


»-<CStNTj<OCOlOfO 




^ 


OX 






tooc 


i-(^^00i£>C0»CW^ 




- t^ 


CI 








tc 






■^r^ 




CO 


^ <0 CO CO (N 




U3 


(N 






















COIN 










IN 










U2 
























C 
















































_o 








































































C 
























3 
























o 
























o 
























00 








































































c 
























_o 








































































1 


c 














































h 


g , 
























"S • 






















^ I' 


o • 






















d " 


~ -< c^ CO ■* lo to t>. 00 1 






o a 






e 


Fh 


e 
















1 



IN -* in. 

ci 00 o !■ 



Mis cs-a 



SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. 



13 



TEACHEES BORN AND REARED IN THE OPEN COUNTRY. 

It has been pointed out repeatedly in the recent literature on rural education that 
one of the main factors in the success of rural teaching is to know rural life and be in 
sympathy with its problems. A circumstance which should help teachers secure an 
insight into and a sympathetic understanding of rural life and customs, especially in 
the case of those not trained professionally for rural teaching, is their being born 
and reared in the open country. In the light of this, it was thought advisable to 
tabulate the data as found in Table 5. 

Table b.^Niimber of teachers in one-teacher schools born and reared in the open country, 
villages, boroughs, and cities — total distribution and per cent, followed by 8 typical 
counties. 





Open 
country. 


Village. 


Borough. 


City. 


Total. 


Total distribution 18 counties 


1,003 
74 


92 

7 


164 

12 


99 
7 


1 358 




' 100 






Distribution in typical counties: 


35 
64 

122 
30 
88 
53 
78 

100 


5 
4 
12 
2 
8 
3 
1 
3 


3 

9 
25 

3 

14 
20 
10 

6 




43 


2 


3 

8 

4 
27 

8 
13 

4 


80 


3 


167 


4 


39 


5 


137 


6 


84 


7 


102 


8 


113 







Among the 1,358 teachers who answered the question as to the place of their birth, 
1,003, or 74 per cent, were born and reared in the open country; 92, or 7 per cent, in 
villages; and 19 per cent in boroughs and cities. Since it will be shown later that 
approximately three-fourths of these teachers had no professional training to fit them 
for teaching in rural schools,* it might, therefore, be considered fortunate that such a 
large proportion of the teachers represented in this study were familiar with rural 
life, and had received at least part of their educational experience in a rural school. 
Many county superintendents state that they would prefer to have teachers under their 
Bupervision who possess a sympathetic understanding of the life and customs of rural 
people rather than to have those who come from boroughs and cities with better 
academic preparation but unfamiliar with rural work. 

TEACHERS KEYING WITH PARENTS OR RELATIVES. 

In reply to section 8 of the questionnaire, pertaining to the social life of the teacher, 
it was found that, out of the 1,160 replies, 739, or 64 per cent, reported they were 
Uving with their parents or relatives while teaching; but 348 out of the 739, or nearly 
half the number, were obliged to pay from their meager salaries a certain amount for 
board and room. 



TEACHERS MARRIED AND SINGLE. 

Of the 336 men teachers replying to this part of the questionnaire, 184, or 55 per cent, 
were married. This probably is a fortunate situation, in that their homes may be 
made to serve as teacherages and in that it helps to improve the stability of the 
rural teaching force in many counties of the State. In considering the very small 
proportion of married women teachers, 60 out of 1,050, or approximately 6 per cent, 



8 See p. 34. 

73438°- 



-22- 



14 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



the question might well be raised, especially in these times of great scarcity of teachers, 
whether a special effort should not be made to induce and encourage more married 
women either to continue in the service or to reenter the profession of teacliing. 



BOARD AND LODGING. 



Out of the 1,450 replies received, 870, or 60 per cent, reported as paying for board 
and room. Of this number, 747 were women and 123 were men. The yearly and 
monthly cost of board and room for the teachers reporting these items of expense 
are shown in Tables 6 and 7. The outstanding feature of tliis information is the wide 
variation in the cost, both on the monthly and yearly basis. For example, it will be 
seen in Table 6 that the yearly cost of board and room ranges from less than $50 to 
more than $200. The median cost per year (generally considered the school year) 
is $121, while the cost for 61 per cent of the teachers ranges from $75 to $150. Probably 
the most significant fact revealed by a study of this table is that 38 per cent of the 
teachers pay less than $100 per year for board and room. It should be recognized 
that these data were collected in 1918, and that in the meantime tliis item of expense 
has been very greatly increased. Nevertheless, the facts seem to bear out the opinion 
generally held that the cost of board and room for rural teachers is considerably less 
than for urban teachers. 

Table 6.— Yearly cost of hoard and room. 





Less 

than 
$50. 


$50-$74 


$75-899 


$100- 

$124 


$12.'')- 
$149 


$150- 

$174 


$17.5- 
$199 


S200or 
above. 


Total. 


Total distribution 18 counties 
Per cent 


16 
2 


82 
10 


213 
26 


118 
14 


174 
21 


10 


79 
10 


53 
7 


819 
100 






Typical counties: 


1 


5 
3 
3 
1 

4 
11 

7 
10 


6 

4 
21 
19 
13 
11 
21 
18 


7 
2 

24 
1 

11 

ie' 

2 


5 
12 
36 
7 
15 
6 
4 
1 


2 

5 
19 
1 
6 
1 


1 
6 
16 
1 
4 


4' 

5 

is" 


27 


2 


36 


3 


2 


126 


4 


30 


5 


1 
1 

1 
2 


67 


6 


30 


7 




2 


51 


8 






33 













Turning to the individual counties, it will be seen that there is considerable varia- 
tion in the amount of money expended for board and room. Counties 5 and 8 show a 
median cost of $133 and $83, respectively. Tliis difference can probably be somewhat 
explained by the fact that county 8 is principally an agricultural county, while 
county 5 contains a number of urban communities. 

Table 7. — Monthly cost of board and room. 





$6-$8 


$9-$U 


.S12-$14 


$15-$17 


$lS-$20 


$21-$23 


$24-$2G 


$27-$29 


$30 or 
above. 


Total. 


Total distribution 18 


31 
4 


86 
11 


219 
26 


194 
23 


217 
25 


13 
2 


52 
7 


4 


14 
2 


832 




100 






Typical counties: 
1 




1 
4 

14 
8 
7 

14 
9 
9 


6 

9 

32 
24 
3 
9 
23 
IG 


11 
9 

27 

20 
9 
2 

11 
5 


11 
13 
43 
19 
27 
7 
9 
1 


6' 

3 

1 


1 
2 

10 
G 

17 


1 

i" 


1 
1 
2 

2 


32 


2 


3 
2 

8 


41 


3 


137 


4 


90 


5 


66 


6 




32 


7 


1 
6 








1 


54 


8 








37 















SOCIAL AISTD ECOTS"OMIC STATUS. 



15 



The median monthly cost of board and room, as shown in Table 7, is $16; the range 
extends from $6 to |30 or more per month. It will be further observed that 75 per 
cent of the teachers paid from $12 to $20 per month, and that 14 per cent paid lesa 
than $12 per month. 

Table 8. — Number of months for which teachers pay for hoard and room. 





Months. 




5 or less. 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Total. 


Total distribution 18 counties 
Per cent 


21 

2 


IS 
2 


439 ' 

64' 


178 
22 


76 
9 


15 
2 




70 
9 


817 
100 






Typical counties: 

1 


3 


2 


27 
9 
49 
50 
23 
28 
28 
32 












32 


2 


14 
47 
17 
19 
1 
3 


16 

26 

8 






4 
13 
13 
IS 

1 
2 
2 


43 


3 


2 


2 

1 

2 
1 






137 


4 


8 




98 




2 
2 
2 
4 


m 


fi 








34 


7 








36 


8 








38 















It will be seen in Table 8 that over 50 per cent of the teacher's reported that they 
paid for board and room for seven months of the year, which is the length of the school 
term for a majority of the teachers in rural districts. Teachers who paid their living 
expenses for a period of eight and nine months usually taught in counties in which 
a large proportion of the school districts have eight and nine months' terms. Eleven 
per cent of the teachers had to meet these expenses for a period of 10 months or more, 
while only 9 per cent were obliged to meet them for the entire calendar year. 

TEACHERS REMAINING OVER SATURDAY AND SUNDAY IN THE COM- 
MUNITY IN V/HICH THEY TEACH. 



In most of the recent literature on rural education, particular emphasis has been 
placed on the matter of whether teachers live in the community in which they are 
teaching over the week end. It is maintained that in order to be of the best service 
in a particular school community a teacher should participate in and become a part 
of the social life of that community. With this idea in mind the following question 
was formulated: "Do you remain over Sunday in the community in which you 
teach? " The replies were as follows: 

Table 9. — Teachers spending weelc ends where teaching. 

Niunber. Per cent. 

Teachers remaining in community Saturday and Sunday 485 48 

Teachers not remaining in community Saturday and Sunday 477 47 

Teachers remaining occasionally 45 5 

Total number replying 1, 007 100 

In the first place, it should be noted that only 70 per cent of all the teachers reply- 
ing to the questionnaire reported the above information, but of those reporting, 48 
per cent, or slightly less than half, spent Saturday and Sunday in the community 
in which they were teaching. Since it will be recalled that 64 per cent of the teachers 
lived with parents or relatives, a large proportion of this group must be represented 
in the above 48 per cent.^ While it was not found practical to trace each one of these 
individually in order to establish the proportion definitely, yet it was apparent that 

9 See p. 13. 



16 STATUS OF RUEAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

an unusually large percentage were absent from the community at probably the most 
opportune time for participation in the social activities and life of the people. 

INCOME APART FROM SALARY. 

The salaries of the teachers under the super\'ision of county superintendents during 
the school year 1918-19 were unusually low, as will be discussed more at length in 
Chapter VII of this study.'" It will be seen that the median salary of the teachers 
in the one-teacher schools is as low as $411, with a large proportion recei^^.ng the 
small amount of $315. As teachers can scarcely eke out an existence with such an 
income, it was deemed advisable to discover, if possible, what proportion of the 
teachers had an income apart from the salary which they received for teaching. 

From the 810 teachers replying, or 56 per cent of the entire number included in 
this study, it was found that only 25 per cent stated that they had an income apart 
from their remuneration for teaching. Only two-thirds of this number, or 137 
teachers, gave the exact amount of this extra income, which ranges from $25 to $1,000. 
Approximately one-third of the group had an income of lees than $100, and 25 per 
cent an income of not less than $300, apart from their teaching salaries. The median 
amount reported is $200, which also happens to be the mode, or the amount reported 
the greatest number of times. The information explaining how these teachers ob- 
tained additional income apart from their salaries was not given in most cases. How- 
ever, a large proportion reporting the outside income have been usually men teachers 
who obtained from their small tracts of land a substantial livelihood independent of 
that received for their public-school work. 

MONEY SAVED. 

It is rather surprising to note that in spite of the fact that teachers in one-teacher 
rural schools receive such low salaries, approximately 40 per cent of the 1,024 teachers 
reporting, stated that they saved money. The amounts saved per year by these 420 
vary from $10 to $400. For the group the median amount is $100, which also chances 
to be the mode. . One-fifth of the group saved from $10 to $50 per year, while slightly 
less than this proportion reported saving from $200 to $400. 

To make a more thorough study of the economic life of the teacher one should trace 
each individual to determine how it is possible to save money from the amount of 
salary received. It was found, as a rule, that the teachers thus reporting were about 
equally distributed between the following groups, namely, those living with parents 
or relatives, consequently having very low living expenses, and those reporting an 
income apart from the salary received for teaching. However, those not li\a.ng with 
parents and not having an outside income independent of their teaching constituted 
for the most part the group that did not save any money or did not make reply. 

DEPENDENTS. 

Only one-half of the teachers gave information relating to this question, and of the 
number reporting, 32 per cent stated that part of their salary was consumed in support- 
ing dependents. Usually these teachers have one or two such persons wholly or 
partially dependent upon them, the amount of money expended for such purposes 
ranging from $25 to $350, with a median amount of $175. On the whole, it appears that 
a fairly large proportion of the rural teachers were obliged either to support parents or 
relatives, or to give at least in part a substantial portion of their income for the main- 
tenance of the home. 

10 See p. 60. 



SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. 



17 



INSURANCE AND BENEFICIAL ASSOCIATIONS. 

Out of the 973 teachers who answered the question whether they ' 'carry life insur- 
ance," it is interesting to learn that only 267, or 27 per cent, reported in the afBrmative. 
The amount of money invested in insurance varies from $5.20 to $150, with an average 
amount of $30 for the group. It would seem that these figures indicate a fairly large 
proportion both in number of teachers and amount of money expended in view of the 
very limited income of rural teachers. 

Some of the teachers also reported having joined a benefic'ial association, vrf.th dues 
ranging from $5 to $15 per year. Only 13 per cent of those reporting had taken such 
precautionary measures against illness or accident. While the writer knows of two 
such organizations that have sprung up in the State within recent years, especially 
intended for the protection of teachers, it would seem from these facts that a very small 
proportion of the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools have availed themselves of 
such protection. 

AMOUNTS EXPENDED FOR PROFESSIONAL LITERATURE. 

An unusually large number of these rural teachers subscribed for educational maga- 
zines and reference books for teaching. The kind of material will be discussed in the 
next chapter. However, it should be noted that a fair proportion of their income was 
thus expended. 

Table 10. — Amounts expended for educational magazines. 





Cost of magazines. 




$0.50 


$1.00 


$1.50 


$2.00 


$2.50 


$3.00 


$3.50 


$4.00 


$5.00 


Total. 


Number of teachers. 


7 
1 


122 
16 


455 
58 


89 
11 


46 
6 


36 
4 


15 
2 


6 
1 


10 
1 


788 
100 







This table shows that 786 teachers paid subscriptions ranging from 50 cents to $5 for 
educational magazines. Approximately 58 per cent of the group invested the median 
amount of $1.50, and 14 per cent paid from $2.50 to $5 for such magazines. 

Table 11. — Amounts expended for professional literature and reference boohs. 





Cost of professional literature and reference books. 




$1.00 


$2.00 


$3.60 


$5.00 


$7.50 


$10. 00 


$15.00 


$20.00 


$30. 00 


$40.00 


$50.00 


Total. 


Number of teachers 

Per cent 


62 
19 


63 
19 


44 
14 


74 
23 


25 
8 


24 
8 


10 
3 


12 
4 


3 
1 


1 


3 
1 


321 
100 







Twenty-two per cent of the teachers reported investing money in professional liter- 
ature and reference books ranging in amounts from $1 to $50; the median amount thus 
expended is $3.50. In the light of the fact that a very small proportion of rural 
teachers have had professional training, it speaks well for them that there is so strong 
a tendency among this rural-teacher group, receiving such limited incomes, to invest 
money ranging from $10 to $50 in educational publications. 



Chapter III. 
THE TEACHER AT WORK. 



In discussing the working conditions of the rural teachers in the one-teacher schools, 
it is the puipose not to examine them as elements of the organization of the school, 
but rather to consider them only in so far as they help to throw light on the status 
of the iniral teachers, and explain the tremendous handicap under which they are 
obliged to work. A number of the topics touched upon herein but slightly might 
well be continued in a more intensive study. 

NUMBER OF PUPILS. 

As the size of the school is usually one of the first factors that is given considera- 
tion in stud^dng conditions under v/hich any particular group of teachers work, the 
teachers were asked in the questionnaire to state the number of pupils enrolled in 
their schools. Table 12 shows that 1,436 teachers reported in 1918 that their schools 
ranged in size from 3 to 68 pupils. The median number is found to be 26; the 25 
percentile 19 and the 75 percentile 35, which facts show that 50 per cent of the 
teachers had schools under their charge ranging from 19 to 35 pupils. 

Table 12. — Number of pupils in one-teacher schools of 18 counties , followed by S typical 

counties. 



Number of pupils. 


Total 
in 18 

•coun- 
ties. 


Typical counties. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


3- 5 


10 

27 

50 

109 

126 

156 

132 

157 

120 

205 

138 

120 

39 

33 

8 

6 


1 
1 
1 
5 
4 
6 
4 
8 
4 
1 
5 
3 
2 
1 


1 








1 

2 
10 
12 
17 
13 

7 
13 
10 

8 
13 

2 


1 
5 
3 
6 
11 
12 
7 
2 
1 
3 
1 




6 8 




2 

7 
12 
15 
17 
16 
24 
11 
21 
20 
10 

4, 

3 


4" 

11 

9 

11 

13 

32 

IS 

23 

9 

6 

1 

1 




9-11 


2 
6 
2 
6 

4 
4 
3 

4 
1 

3 
2 

1 
1 


1 
2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
5 
7 
« 
4 
1 


6 


12-14 


4 


15-17 


10 


18-20 


9 


21-23 


11 


24-26 


16 


27-29 


11 


30-34 


12 


35-39 


15 


40-44 


15 


45-49 


5 


SO-54 


1 




4 


S5-59 


1 












1 


















Total 


1, 436 
2S 


46 
24 


40 
24 


39 
31 


159 
25 


IBS 
32 


109 
21 


52 
18 


120 


Median numbei- of pupils 


28 



In view of the very dif&cult and laborious work usually attributed to teaehera in 
rural schools, it is gratifying that only 25 per cent of the teachers reported schools 
■with an enrollment larger than 35 pupils, and that only 6 per cent of the teachers had 
45 or more children under their direct charge. Nevertheless, it should fee remembered 
that in these schools generally all grades from the pruuary to the eighth and frequently 
the ninth and tenth were represented. 
18 



THE TEACHER AT WORK. 



19 



There is also considerable variation in the size of schools among the 8 typical coun- 
ties as found in Table 12, in that the median size of schools in county 7 is 18 pupils 
and in county 5 is 32. In 5 of the counties, however, the median number of pupils 
for each centers close about the median number for the entire group, namely, 26. 

Just as we observe a marked variation in the pupil enrollment in one-teacher schools, 
so we may note a similar variation both in the number and kinds of grades. 

Table 13. — Distribution of grades in one-teacher schools. 





Grades. 


Total. 




1 


2 


3 


i 


5 


6 ■ 


7 


8 


9 


10 






19 
1.8 


32 
3.1 


60 
5.9 


131 
12.9 


160 
15.7 


148 
14 5 


426 
41.8 


18 
1.8 


25 
2.5 


1 019 


Per cent 




100 









It is noticeable in the preceding table that the range in grades extends from 2 to 
10, with the median falling in the group reporting 7. Inasmuch as the largest num- 
ber of schools are found to have 8 grades, it is evident that the county superintend- 
ents are carrying out the program suggested in recent years by the State department 
of public instruction of grading and grouping the pupils on an eight-grade basis, as 
has generally been practiced in the urban schools. ^ 

Although a large proportion of the teachers, 72 per cent, have the pupils grouped 
in 6, 7, or 8 grades, yet it is quite significant that 23 per cent report 5 or less grades, 
and 4 per cent, 9 and 10 grades. The latter condition is usually found in schools in 
which the advanced pupils either repeat the grammar-school subjects or pursue the 
study of one or more high-school subjects which may possibly be added to the regular 
elementary school work. In the case of teachers reporting 5 grades, it is found that 
there are a number of one-teacher rural schools with large pupil enrollment who 
hold to the traditional scheme of grading their schools in 5 divisions. 

A diversity of gi'ading similar to that which prevails in the group as a whole is 
apparent in the different counties. Several of the counties show a fairly large pro- 
portion of schools with large pupil em-ollment having 4 or 5 grades, while in two 
others 7 and 8 grade schools largely predominate, thus showing on the part of super- 
visory officers the pursuance of different policies of grading and grouping pupils. 

NUMBER OF DAILY RECITATIONS. 



The number of daily recitations in the program of the teachers in one-teacher 
schools for the 1,350 teachers ref)orting this information is shown in Table 14. The 
number of class recitations is found to range all the way from 9 to 50 per day. How- 
ever, since only two teachers reported as having the almost incredible number of 
50 recitations, it is probably safer to say that the upper range for the group is approxi- 
mately 45 recitations per day. The median number is 25.6, failing within the largest 
group reporting 24 to 26 classes. The middle 50 per cent extends from 22 to 30 reci- 
tations. Probably the most significant fact revealed by these data is that 25 per 
cent of the teachers reported as having 30 or more class recitations per day, and 7 
per cent of these 35 or more per day. 

1 Course of Study for Elementary Schools of Pa., 1918, State Dept. Pub. Instr. Koch et al., p. 9. 



20 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PEI^NSYLVANIA. 



Takle 14. — Number of recitations per day in one-teacher schools in IS counties, followed 

by 8 typical counties. 



Number of recitations. 


Total, 

IS 
coun- 
ties. 


Tyjiical counties. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9-11 


4 

37 

38 

1S2 

209 

396 

146 

246 

60 

22 

8 

2 


1 






1 

3 

5 

31 

31 

60 

18 

16 

2 

1 

2 


. 3 
7 
6 
9 
4 
10 
10 
39 
28 
7 
4 
2 


2 

1 

3 

5 

9 

48 

14 

18 

1 

1 

1 


i' 

7 
13 
17 
2 
3 

i" 


1 


12-14 






2 


15-17 








3 


18-20 


4" 

14 
2 

20 
2 


2 
4 
13 
13 

7 

1 


11 
19 
7 
2 
3 


4 


21-23 


7 


24-26 


21 


27-29 


19 


30-34 


43 


35-39 


g 


40-44 


7 


45-49 










50 


























Total 


1,350 
25.6 


43 
30 


40 
27 


42 
23 


168 
25 


129 
31 


103 
26 


44 
24 


113 


Median number of recitations. 


30 



Since the length of the school day is approximately 5^ hours, or 330 minutes, 
exclusive of intermissions, it can be seen that teachers having 30 or more recitations 
per day would average approximately 10 minutes per recitation. These facts cer- 
tainly give some proof of the very strenuous work that teachers in one-teacher rural 
Bchools are obliged to do, especially in a school of 25 or more pupils. 

In the 8 typical counties represented in the table the medians range from 23 in 
county 3 to 31 recitations per day in county 5. Although the teachers in three of 
these counties report 30 or more recitations, we are glad to point out that the data 
show that three others of the group have an average of 25 or fewer recitations. 

Since approximately 20 per cent of the entire group, as we have already pointed 
out, have 20 or fewer recitations per day, there seems to be direct evidence, at least 
in some of the counties, of a tendency to lighten the teacher's work and to improve 
her efficiency by following the suggestions of the State department of education in 
1918 in the Course of Study for the Elementary Schools. ^ In the suggested daily 
program contained in the State course, the allotted time provides for 23 recitations 
per day, including the opening exercises. It is doubtful, however, whether in the 
average daily program for a rural school, with a fairly large enrollment of pupUa 
divided into 7 and 8 grades, the required work can be covered with less than 25 
recitations per day. 

In comparison with the very limited data that we have from studies relative to the 
topic of class recitations in rural schools of other States, it would appear that Penn- 
sylvania ranks very well. In South Dakota the numl)er of daily recitations in open 
country schools was found to be 26.65.^ In the State of Colorado the number of 
recitations for all the schools in the counties, including villages, averaged 22, How- 
ever, in the one-teacher schools the number of recitations in many cases is reported 
as high as 37. •» 



RELATION BETWEEN NUMBER OF PUPILS AND NUMBER OF DAILY RECITATIONS. 

In representing the relation between the number of daily recitations and the num- 
ber of pupils enrolled, it will be seen in Table 15 that in the group of 141 teachers 
reporting an em-oUment of 18 to 20 pupils the range in daily class recitations extends 
from 12 to 45, with a median of 26. In the case of the group of 198, with an enroll- 

2 Course study for Ele. Sehs. of Pa. State Dept. Pub. Instr. Koch et al., p. 8. 

3 Educational System of S. Dak. U.S.Bu. of Educ.Bul., 1918, No. 31, p. 114. 

« A dmini stration and Support of the Colorado Scliool System. U.S. Bu. of Educ.Bul., 1917, No. 5, p. 76. 



THE TEACHER AT WORK. 



21 



ment of 30 to 34 pupils, there is an equally wide range in class recitations per day. 
Where the enrollment is over 35 there seems to be a tendency toward an increase 
in the number of recitations. 



Table 15.- 



-Number of pupils in one-teacher schools in relation to number of daily 
recitations. 



Number of pupils. 


Number of redtations,. 


Total 
num- 


9-11 


12-14 


15-17 


18-20 


21-23 


24-26 


27-29 


30-34 


35-39 


40-44 


45-49 


50 


ber of 
pupils. 


3 5 




1 
2 
1 
8 
2 
4 
3 
4 
2 
3 
...... 

1 


1 
3 
3 
5 
1 
2 
2 
4 
1 
8 
3 
3 

""2 


1 
11 

8 

11 

13 

16 

27 

18 

12 

24 

15 

11 

4 

7 

2 

1 


3 

4 

14 

14 

32 

19 

25 

21 

12 

26 

19 

14 

2 

1 

...... 


2 

6 

14 

32 

40 

- 53 

27 

53 

22 

67 

30 

32 

7 

5 

1 

2 














8 


6-8 




1 

' 2 

15 

11 

15 

9 

20 

12 

15 

15 

12 

7 

5 

3 

2 












27 


9-11 




6 

8 

10 

24 

25 

27 

33 

35 

25 

33 

11 

8 

1 










48 


12 14 




1 

1 
2 
6 
8 
7 

13 
7 
6 
4 
3 
1 


1 






95 


15-17 


1 






111 


18-20 


1 
2 
2 
1 
3 
4 
4 
1 


2 
1 




141 


21-23 




127 


24-26 




157 


27 29 . 








102 


30-34 


2 
1 


...... 


...... 


198 


35-39 


120 


40-44 


117 


45-49 




37 


50-54 .i...... 




1 


1 


33 


55-50 






8 
















6 






















Total number 
recitations. . 


4 


32 


38 


181 


207 


393 


144 


246 


59 


22 


7 


2 


1,335 



r=.20 P. E.-±.018. 

Looking at this table with the number of recitations primarily in mind, it will be 
seen that the teachers reporting class recitations in the class intervals from 18 to 20 
and from 24 to 26 per day show practically similar distributions in the number of 
pupils enrolled, with the median number of pupils approximately 25 in each dis- 
tribution. Beyond 27 daily recitations there is an evident increase in the number 
of pupUs enrolled. The correlation, while positive, is not high, namely r=.20 
P . E. = ± .018 (Pearson's Product-Moment Method). This means that schools having 
the largest number of pupils enrolled do not necessarily have the greatest number 
of class recitations per day. 

In discussing the number of pupils, the grouping into grades, and the number 
of daily recitations, it has been the purpose primarily not in any way to make an 
exhaustive study of each of these phases of the school, but rather to throw light, if 
possible, on the tremendously large and difficult task that many of the teachers in 
one-teacher rural schools are called upon daily to perform. An average enrollment 
of 26 pupils with 7 or 8 grades and a daily program of 26 or more recitations were 
tyi^ical of the average working conditions, not to mention the group of nearly 50 per 
cent of the teachers whose pupil enrollment, number of grades, and daily recitations 
far surpassed these averages. 

In discussing further the working condition* of the teacher, we shall take into 
account the information given in the questionnaire concerning the agencies which 
should help to make their work more efficient during service. Therefore, we shall 
tabulate the answers given to parts 13, 14, and 15 of the questionnaire as found in 
chapter 1.^ 

SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 

In answer to the question whether there was a school library, only 1,044, or 72 
per cent, of the teachers replied. In Table 16 it will be seen that 31 per cent answered 
affirmatively, 41 per cent negatively, and 28 per cent did not reply. 

5 See p. 3. 



22 



STATUS OF KURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



Table Ifi. — Per cent of tcacJters reporting school Uhraries, total per cent followed by 10 

typical counties. 





Total, 

18 
coun- 
ties. 


Tyjjical counties. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 10 


Per cent reporting libraries 

Per cent not reporting libraries. . 


31 
41 
28 


30 
38 
32 


25 
65 
10 


26 
60 
14 


. 37 
50 
13 


63 

25 
12 


64 

1 

35 


44 
29 
27 


28 
50 
16 


12 66 
71 15 
17 19 







Great differences seem to exist among the separate counties. For example, in 
counties 5 and 10, school libraries were reported by 63 and 6G per cent of the teachers, 
respectively. On the other hand, counties 9 and 2 indicate the opposite extreme, in 
that only 12 and 25 per cent thus reported. The reason for these differences must be 
left largely to conjecture, since no definite information was given to indicate conclu- 
sively the exact causes. 

The teachers were asked to state the approximate number of books filed in their 
libraries. These data are tabulated in the following tal>le: 

Table 17. — Number of books in one-teacher school Uhraries. 





Number of books. 


Total. 




10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


75 


100 


150 


200 


300 


400 


Number of teachers re- 
porting 


58 
14 


85 
20 


64 
15 


31 
8 


76 
15 


30 
7 


43 
10 


23 
6 


14 
3 


5 
1 


4 
1 


423 


Per cent 


100 







It will be noticed here that the range in number of books extends from 10 to 400. 
Nearly 50 per cent of the 423 teachers who gave this information reported libraries %\dth 
less than 40 books, and 21 per cent reported libraries with 100 or more volumes. Al- 
though only 423, or 29 per cent of the whole number of teachers upon which this 
study is based, reported as having a definite number of books in their school libraries, 
yet these comparatively few teachers should be highly commended for the efforts 
exerted by them, frequently with the aid of jiupils and ofttimes at a personal sacrifice. 

ACCESSIBILITY TO OTHER LIBRARIES. 

In reply to that part of question 13 of .the questionnaire asking whether teachers 
had access to any other libraries for obtainiifg books and materials for teaching, it is 
interesting to note that 924, or C4 per cent, of the teachers replied, of whom 398, or 
43 per cent, reported in the affirmative. In view of the slight variation among the 
different counties, this condition seems to have been quite prevalent throughout the 
counties represented in this study. 

LOCAL INSTITUTES. 

Since it is generally known that all teachers in Pennsylvania are obliged to attend 
either county or district teachers' institutes for five days, we shall not discuss in detail 
this agency as a means for the training of teachers. However, since most of the 
county superintendents in Pennsylvania encourage, or actively participate in the 
organization of many local or district institutes throughout their counties, the question 
was asked of the teachers, how far they availed themselves of this opportunity. There 
were 824 teachers who replied to this question, of whom 591, or 72 per cent, reported 
that they had attencied such educational meetings. From this large proportion of 



THE TEACHER. AT WORK. 



23 



affirinativ-e replies it is 6^4deIlt that local institutes play a part in helping to develop 
teachers in the rural districts. 

In order to learn what opportunities the teachers in rural schools have for personal 
growth and development, they were asked whether they were m^embers oi a reading 
circle. Thirty-one per cent of the 1,017 teachers replying said that they were members 
of such an organization. This low percentage may probably be expected because of 
the physical difficulties that teachers in rural communities must necessarily experience 
in attending such meetings. 



PBOFESSIONAL LITERATURE. 

To ascertain fiu-ther the opportunities of which teachers in the one-teacher rural 
schools individually availed themselves, they were requested to state the kind of 
professional literature for which th«y subscribed^ such as educational magazines and 
reference books. It is shown in the previous chapter that teachers expended a fairly 
large percentage of their salaries for material of this kind. Of the entire number of 
teachers comprising this study, 1,114, or 77 per cent, gave this information, of whom 
1,.©15, or 91 per cent, reported that, they subscribed for edu<:;ational magazines. AmoBf 
the number thus reporting, 879 gave the names of the magazines as described in the 
following table: 

Table 18. — Educational 'magazines subscribed for by tsachers in one-teacher rural schools 



Kind of magazines. 



Number. 


Per cent. 


460 


52.3 


36 


4.1 


28 


3.1 


17 


2.0 


7 


.8 


• 3 


.3 


3 


.3 


2 


.2 


2 


.2 


156 


18.0 


62 


7.0 


17 


1.9 


13 


1.5 


11 


1.3 


10 


1.2 


9 


1.0 


6 


.7 


4 


.5 


5 


.6 


3 


.3 


3 


.3 


2 


.2 


1 


.05 


1 


.05 


18 


2.1 



Normal Instructor 

Primary Plans 

Primary Education . . , 

Poqjular Education 

Educational Journal 

Child Life 

Pennsylvania School Journal. 

Progressive Teacher 

Teacher's Work 



IN COMBINATIONS. 



Normal Instructor and Priaiary Plans 

Normal Instructor and Pathfinder 

Normal Instructor, Primary Plans, and Pathfinder 

Normal Instructor and Primary Education 

Normal Instructor and Popular Education , 

Primary Education and Popular Education 

Primary Plans and Popular Education 

Normal Instruction, Primary Plans, Popular Education. 

Normal Instruction, School Journal, and Pathfinder 

Normal Instructor and Educational Jom'naL 

Educational Journal and Pathfinder 

Norm5,l Instructor and The Century 

Normal Instructor and Educational Foundations 

Normal Instructor and Current Events 

Primary Education aind IKte Century 

Miscellaneous - 



Total. 



100 



From the data at hand we have no evidence as to how fai' these selections of educa- 
tional magazines carried out the suggestions of the list of educational journals as sub- 
mitted by county superintendents in the different counties, but in talking this matter 
over with several of the superintendents of counties represented in this study, the 
writer learned that in many cases the teachers followed the suggestions of an agent in 
selecting magazines either separately or in attractive combinations. 

Besides the educational magazines in tiie foregoing list, a email percentage of the 
teachers reported as subscribing for the following magazines and periodicals; E,e^T.ew 
of Pv,eviews, Home Economics, Good Housekeeping, Popular Mechanics, New Century^ 
World's Events, The American, World's Work, Youth's €ompanian, Saturday Even- 



24 



STATUS OF EURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



ing Post, Geographic Magazine, Pathfinder, Current Events, Nature Study, Bird 
Life, newspapers, etc. None of the above was named more than 10 times, with the 
exception of the Pathfinder, which was named 48 times. Cm-rent Events, 35 times, 
and Geographic Magazine, 20 times. 

Relative to reference books, ap'proximately 22 per cent of the teachers gave informa- 
tion. The following were named most frequently: The Encyclopedia, the Diction- 
ary, the Standard Dictionary of Facts, Century Book of Facts, Stoddard's Lectures, 
Book of Knowledge, Book-s on Teaching, Books on Theory, Story Books, Classics, 
Public School Methods, Supplementary Text Books, etc. 



SUPERVISION BY COUNTY AND ASSISTANT COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 

Inasmuch as it is generally understood that scores of teachers in the rural schools 
are new and inexperienced in the work and frequently have very limited academic 
and professional training, it was deemed advisable to determine, to some extent at 
least, how much time was actually spent by county and assistant county superin- 
tendents with rural teachers for supervisory purposes. These data are tabulated in 
Table 19, of which Division A shows that the time spent by county superintendents 
in supervision, according to the replies of l.OOG teachers from 18 different counties 
ranges from a quarter of an hour to eight hotirs during the school year. The median 
is found in the group of 404, or 40 per cent of the numl)er, who reported supervision 
for a period of one hour. It is most significant that 66 per cent of the teachers replied 
that county superintendents could spend only one hour or less in supervising their 
teaching work. 

Table 19. — Number of hours per school year teachers in one-teacher schools arc super- 
vised — Distribution for 18 counties , folloived by 8 typical counties. 

DIVISION A.— COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 







Total 








Typical counties 










Number of hours. 


distri- 
Ijution, 






















j 












18 coun- 
ties. 


1 


2 


3 


4 5 

1 


6 


7 


8 


J.., 


46 
215 


4' 


1 
12 






17 
45 


4 
12 


2 
16 




*.. 






■■ 6 


23 


1. . 




404 


12 


31 




8 i 38 


15 


38 


35 


n. 




71 


6 


4 




1 4 


2 


13 


5 


2.. 




159 


7 


6 


3 


1 ! 10 


8 


3 


8 


3. . 




38 




2 


2 


1 1 2 


4 




3 


4. 




39 
17 
4 
6 
6 






4 

1 


1 ' 




1 


1 


5 


■ 






6 






1 


1 




7 






3 

2 






8. ..-------- - 




2 


1 


i 




Total 








1,005 


29 


58 


15 


17 


117 


45 


73 


75 









DIVISION B.— ASSISTANT COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 





Number of hours. 


Total 
distri- 
bution, 
18 coun- 
ties. 


Typical counties. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


i 


9 

68 

175 

54 

204 

78 

36 

13 

5 

5 

10 


3 
6 

3" 










1 

6 
12 

2 
10 

7 

2 




1 


h 


2 
5 
3 
26 
4 





2 
2 

1 
8 
2 
3 


20 
44 
16 
25 
20 

3' 

1 
1 


6 


1 


12 


n 


2 


2 


10 


3 


7 


4 


4 


2 


5 


2 




1 ""■ 


1 


6 






1 




1 


7 




1 I 


1 




8 


3 





2 




2 




Total 










655 


12 


,50 1 10 


130 


44 


44 



















THE TEACHER AT WORK. 25 

In observing the 8 typical counties in Division A, it is apparent that the range and 
median time spent in supervision are practically the same in all the counties with 
the exception of counties 3 and 7 — the counties among the group according to Division 
B, that do not have supervision by assistant county superintendents. This is due 
to the fact that by law counties with less than 200 teachers are not entitled to an 
assistant superintendent. ^ But note the contrast-^in county 3, having 22 one-teacher 
schools out of the approximate 60 schools supervised,^ the teachers in the one-teacher 
schools reported supervision ranging from 2 to 8 hours; on the other hand in county 7 
in which the number of schools approaches 200, with approximately 125 one-teacher 
schools,'' very little supervision can necessarily be given to the rural teachers, as 
has been shown by the replies from two-tliirds of the teachers, who stated that they 
have received one hour or less of the superintendent's time in supervision. While 
this latter county superintendent probably gave as much time in supervision to the 
schools as most of the others representing the group of 8 countios, the extra supervision 
received by the teachers in the other counties through their assistant superintendents 
was practically denied his county with 125 one-teacher schools by the rather arbitrary 
State law. 

In Table 19, Division B, 655 teachers reported the amount of time spent in super- 
^dsion by assistant county superintendents in their schools, respectively. While 
the range in time is the same as in the case of the county superintendents, the median 
is found in the group of teachers reporting two hours of supervision during the school 
year. Since 54 per cent, or over one-half, of the teachers in counties having assistant 
county superintendents reported supervision of two or more hours during the school 
year, it is apparent that teachers received, on the basis of the data reported, con- 
siderably more supervision from assistant county superintendents than from county 
superintendents. This condition would naturally be expected, inasmuch as the 
county superintendent is responsible not only for the supervision of every school 
under his jurisdiction, but also for the administration of his office. It seems remark- 
able that these school officials could devote as much time to the schools as herein 
reported, not only because of insufficient professional help, but in many cases because 
of the lack of sufficient clerical help and proper office facilities. 

At this point the reader 's attention should be called to Table 1 in Chapter I, in which 
are set forth certain difficulties relative to supervision in the various counties that 
county superintendents are obliged to face, such as the large number of one-teacher 
schools, sparsity of population, and size of county. To study the first of these 
problems more specifically, in county 41 the siiperintendent with only one assistant 
has 321 teachers under his supervision, of whom 197, or 61 per cent, are employed 
in one-teacher schools ; in county 28 the superintendent with also one assistant superin- 
tendent has under his charge 307 teachers, with 197, or 64 per cent, in one-teacher 
schools; while in county 20 there are 373 teachers, with 311, or 83 per cent, one-teacher 
schools, likewise supervised by the superintendent with the aid of only one assist- 
ant superintendent. In counties 36 and 66 there are 650 and 571 teachers under the 
county superintendent's supervision, with 361 and 350 teachers in one-teacher schools, 
respectively; but the superintendent in the former county has 3 assistants, while 
in the latter the superintendent has but 2, although the two counties have practically 
the same number of one-teacher schools. 

It would seem that in order to provide additional professional supervision for rural 
teachers, instead of using the arbitrary plan providing for one assistant for 200 to 400 
teachers, and one additional assistant for 400 to 600 et cetera,^ the number and distri- 
bution of one-teacher schools should be given careful consideration, to say nothing at 

6 School Laws of Pennsylvania, and appendix, 1919, Art. XI, sec. 1126. 
' Teachers' directories issued by county superintendents, 1919-20. 



2S STATUS OF EUKAL TEACHEE IN PEJSTNSYLVANIA. 

this time of such other factors as the size of the counties, aparsity of population, and 
number and size of school districts. 

It is not the purpose to elaborate on these data any further or to suggest possible 
constructive measures, but rather to set forth the situations in the State as they exist, 
namely, the lack of professional supervision and assistance giA'en to teachers in the 
rural schools, and emphasis upon the need for immediate additional assistance for 
county superintendents, in order to make the time spent in super\'ising rural schools 
at all comparable with that devoted to supervision in borough and city schools. These 
conditions certainly must tend to discourage many of the teachers without any pre- 
vious experience, and undoubtedly cause scores of them to enter urban schools or 
leave the profession altogether. 

SCHOOLS VISITED BY SCHOOL BOARDS. 

Since the school laws of Pennsylvania provide that "boards of school directors shall 
exercise general supervision over the schools of their respecti\'e districts, and shall, 
except in districts having district superintendents or supervising principals, by one 
or more of their number visit every school in the district at least once a month," ^ 
the question was asked of the teachers in the rural schools whether the school boards 
had visited their schools the previous year. Of the entire number of teachers included 
in this study, 694, or 48 per cent, supplied this information. Sixtj'-nine per cent of 
those replying say that their schools were visited by the school boards, and the number 
is distributed in the following table : 

Table 20. — Number and per cent of school directors visiting one-teacher rural schools. 





Number of directors. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Total. 




HI 
28 


134 
27 


108 
21 


58 
11 


65 

15 


506 




100 







The median number of directors visiting schools is found in the group who reported 
visits by two directors, and in only 65, or 15 per cent, of the schools was it reported 
that the entire board consisting of five members observed the teacher actually at 
work. 

Table 21. — Number and per cent of visits made by school directors in the one-teacher 

schools. 





Number of visits. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Total 


Number of schools represented... 


294 
61 


88 
18.2 


33 
6.9 


15 
3.2 


18 
3.7 


5 
1 


12 
2.4 


8 
1.6 


8 
1.6 


2 
0.4 


483 
"100 







This table shows that the median number of visits made by school directors in one- 
teacher schools is found in the group reporting one Adsit. It may be interesting to 
point out that 294 reporting one visit comprise 61 per cent of the group. The school 
code, it should be recalled, provides that the boaids shall exercise general super- 

8 School Laws of Pennsylvania, and appendix, 1919. Art. IV, sec. 408. 



THE TEACHER AT WOBK. 



m 



"Vision over the schools, but it does not specifically refer in any sense to their super- 
vision of instruction. 

This brings us to the question of whether school iboards do give consideration to the 
judgment of county superintendents in the election or reelection of teachers to posi- 
tions in their school districts. In reply to this question, as found in section 6 of the 
questionnaire, unfortunately only 50 per cent of the teachers have given this informa- 
tion. These replies are tabulated in the following table: 



Table 22.- 



-Consideration that school boards give to judgment of county superintendents 
in the election or reelection of teachers. 





Number. 


Per cent. 




180 
342 
203 


23 




47 




30 






Total 


725 


100 







In studying the above table and discounting the fact that only one-half of the 
teachers from the 18 counties comprising the study furnished this information, it is 
most significant to learn that 70 per cent of the teachers reported that the school 
boards gave none or very little consideration to the judgment of county superinten- 
dents in exercising their very important function of electing or reelecting teachers to 
the schools in their respective districts. When it is recalled that 31 per cent of the 
teachers reported that the school boards do not visit their schools, one can not help 
but point out the fact that teachers certainly receive very little intelligent considera- 
tion from many school boards as far as their professional welfare is concerned. These 
conditions emphasize all the more strongly the need for a centralized county organiza- 
tion, especially in its relation to local school boards, if the teachers in the one-teacher 
schools are to be assured of the consideration which they so rightly deserve. 

COMMUNITY INTEREST AND SUPPORT. 



In closing this discussion of the conditions under which the teachers in the rural 
communities are obliged to work, it is of interest to see just what support and coopera- 
tion the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools received from the patrons and resi- 
dents of the school community. The teachers were asked to give this information in 
several parts of the questionnaire. In the first place they were asked, "Do you take 
part in a parent-teachers' association or any kind of community activity held in your 
school building? " The following table contains the replies: 



Table 23. 



-Teachers reporting parent-teachers' organizations and other community 
activities. 





Number. 


Per cent. 


Teachers reporting parent-teachers' association or other community activities 


293 
720 


28 
72 






Total 


1,013 


100 







It is quite apparent from the above replies that teachers in the rural communities 
have very little community cooperation and support in an organized way as is shown 
by the small percentage, 28, who reported such an organization. In some cases it 
may have been impossible to have such a community organization, but we are glad 



28 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

• 
to learn that teachers in many rural schools made it a practice to visit the homes in 
their respective communities and that the parents also frequently visited the schools. 
In reply to the direct question covering these facts, 515 teachers, or 36 per cent, 
reported that it was their practice to visit the homes of parents. The average number 
of homes visited by the group thus reporting is 7. At the same time, 483, or approxi- 
mately 33 per cent, of the parents showed an interest in the work of the schools by 
making frequent \isits during the school year. The average number of \isits reported 
by this group is found among those who received eight such visits from parents. 

In communities having one-teacher schools, interest and cooperation in the work 
of the public schools on the part of patrons and residents frequentlj' has a very direct 
bearing upon the kind and condition of the school and especially upon the social and 
economic life of the teacher who is called upon to serve in such a community. This 
support and interest on the part of the citizens is undoubtedly as vital to the teacher's 
personal welfare as the support of county and local school officials is to her profes- 
sional welfare. 



Chapter IV. 
ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. 



Because of the important part which the teacher's academic and professional training 
plays in the conduct of school, it is most essential that in a study of the rural teacher 
this phase should receive careful analysis. The facts in this discussion are based 
entirely upon the replies in the questionnaires furnished by the teachers themselves. 

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 

Table 24 shows for the year 1918 the elementary education of a group of 1,440 teachers 
in the one-teacher rural schools in 18 counties of the State. The range in years of the 
1,192 teachers, or 80 per cent of the total group, receiving their early education in 
townships extends from 5 to 12 years, and of the 248, or 20 per cent, in boroughs, from 
5 to 11 years. The median length of elementary education in both cases is found in 
the group reporting as having an elementary education of 8 years, which is the equiva- 
lent of 68.2 months on the basis of 7.6 months, the average length of school term for 
townships, and 70.8 months on the basis of 8.6 months, the average length of term for 
boroughs.^ 

Table 24. — Elementary education in years of teachers in one-teacher schools in townships 
and boroughs — Total distribution and per cent for 18 counties. 

DIVISION A— IN TOWNSHIP SCHOOLS. 











Years. 












5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Total. 


Totaldistribution 18 coun- 


20 
2 


114 
9 


164 
14 


423 
36 


228 
19 


147 
12 


66 

5 


30 
3 


1,192 




100 







DIVISION B— IN BOROUGH SCHOOLS. 





Years. 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Total. 


Total distribution 18 coun- 


4 
2 


28 
11 


46 
19 


119 

48 


26 
10 


23 
9 


2 

1 




248 




100 







There is much similarity between Division A and DiAdsion B, as shown by the 
ranges and the medians. Probably the greatest difference between the two is found 
in their respective distributions, the former sho-wing 39 per cent attending elementary 
schools for a period longer than 8 years, the latter only 20 per cent for practically the 
same length of time. It is probable that, among those teachers who report elementary 



See Table 46, p. 66. 
73438°— 22-^ 



29 



30 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



education for'a period of 11 or 12 years, high-school training maybe included, inas- 
much as they do not answer the part of the questionnaire pertaining to secondary 
education. This is more likely to be true in the case of the teachers receiving their 
elementary training in townships rather than in boFoughs, since only 36 per cent of 
the former completed this education within the period of 8 years, as compared with 
48 per cent of the latter. 

These facts can be explained in part in that rural schools in townships frequently 
have classes that extend beyond the eighth grade of the elementary school. It is not 
at all uncommon to find nine grades and sometimes more in one-teacher rural schools. 
The highest, or "A," class in many of these schools frequently spends three or more 
years repeating the more advanced elementary-school sul)ject, with the addition, 
probably, of algebra or Latin or some other high-school subjects, depending prolmbly 
somewhat on the ability and choice of the individual teachers. This tj-pe of school, 
however, is rapidly passing out of existence, and in its place many school districts 
have developed a high school of the second or third class, or they have transferred the 
pupils to another district for instruction beyond the elementary grades. 

In contrast with these facts, it is most interesting to note that the percentage of 
teachers attending elementary schools for a period of 7 years or less is as high as 32 per 
cent for those securing their early education in boroughs and 25 per cent for those 
receiving their early training in townships. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

In examining Table 25, which shows the secondary education for the same group of 
1,440 teachers in one-teacher rural schools from 18 counties of the State, it will l)e 
observed that 39 per cent of the teachers reported in the questionnaires that they had 
had no secondary education. Seven per cent had attended a secondary school for les* 
than one year, 4 per cent for one year, 11 per cent for two years, 17 per cent for three 
years, and 22 per cent reported as having completed a four- year secondary-school 
course. It is only fair to state that inasmuch as the proportion of two and three year 
high schools available among the high schools of the State was, for example, 90 per 
cent in 1908 and 64 per cent in 1918, at least three-fourths of those reporting as having 
attended high school for two and three years were usually graduated from their high 
schools.^ The 98 teachers stating that they had attended a secondary school less than 
a year in most cases attended a private academy, of which there are quite a number 
throughout Pennsylvania, ranking about the same as the high school. 

Table 25. — Secondary education of teachers in one-teacher schools— Total distribution for 
18 counties, followed by distribution in 8 typical counties. 





DIVISION A- 


-DISTRIBUTION 


BY YEARS. 








Teachers 
reporting. 


Without 
secondary 
educa- 
tion. 


With 

secondary 
educa- 
tion. 


Years of secondary education. 




Less than 
one year. 


One 

year. 


Two 
years. 


Three 

years. 


Four 
years. 


Total distribution 
(18 counties) 


1,440 


566 


874 


98 


57 


1.57 


247 


315 


Distribution in typi- 
cal counties: 
1 


46 
99 
92 
105 
110 
40 
65 
109 


19 
63 
39 
38 
45 
20 
13 
46 


27 
36 
53 
67 
65 
20 
51 
73 


1 
4 
3 
4 

20 
3 
2 

17 


1 
1 
2 
2 
9 
1 
3 
7 


6 
5 
4 
8 

19 
2 
6 

20 


11 
17 
11 
22 
9 
5 
15 
11 


g 


2 


g 


3. 


33 
31 

g 


4 


5. .. 


ft 


9 


7 


25 
18 


8 





2 Eleventh An. Rept. High School Inspectors, State Dept. of Educ. of Pa., July, 1918, p. 14. 



ACADEMIC AND PEOFESSIOlirAL TRAINHSTG. 



31 



Table 25. — Secondary education of teachers in one-teacher schools Total distribution for 
18 counties, followed by distribution in 8 typical counties — Continued. 





DIVISION B- 


-DISTEIBUTION IN PER CENT. 








Teachers 
reporting. 


Without 
secondary 
educa- 
tion. 


With 
secondary 
educa- 
tion. 


Secondary education in per cents. 




Less than 
one year. 


One 
year. 


Two 
years. 


Three 
years. 


Four 

years. 


Per cent 


100 


39 


61 


7 


4 


11 


17 


22 


Distribution in typi- 
cal counties: 
1 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


40 
64 
42 
34 
40 
50 
22 
39 


60 
36 
58 
66 
60 
50 
78 
61 


2 
4 
3 
4 

19 
7 
3- 

16 


2 
1 
2 
2 
8 
3 
5 
6 


13 
5 
4 
8 

18 

5 

9 

. 18 


25 
17 
12 
21 
8 
13 
23 
10 


18 


2 


9 


3. 


37 


4 


31 


5 


7 


6 


22 


7 


33 


8 


11 







Among the group of 39 per cent constituting: the teachers who reported no secondary 
education, it must be pointed out, as will be discussed more in detail in the next chap- 
ter,^ that they held all types of certificates, and that 60 per cent of those holding per- 
manent certificates reported that they had no secondary education. At the same 
time the answers showed that teachers just entering the profession with provisional 
certificates had. the highest percentage of secondary school training. 

Another consideration should be taken into account when interpreting these data, 
namely, that a small percentage of the teachers who reported no secondary education 
attended elementary schools in rural communities with 9 and 10 grades, of the type 
described earlier in this chapter. Then, again, a small proportion of those reporting 
only elementary educational preparation attended an academy or local county nor- 
mal school for a period of six weeks before securing a teacher's certificate. In tracing 
the education of each teacher in a number of typical counties, it was found that this 
group constituted from 10 to 15 per cent out of the 39 per cent reporting no secondary 
education. This means, after making all possible deductions on the basis of the 
answers given by the teachers themselves, that on a very conservative estimate the 
number of teachers not having had any seconda,ry education is approximately 25 per 
cent. 

This conclusion is further corroborated by a recent study in teacher shortage made 
by the bureau of certification and training of teachers of the State department of public 
instruction, in which it is set forth that 25 per cent of the teachers holding provisional 
and professional certificates have had only elementary education, and that 2 per cent 
out of these 25 per cent had not even completed this elementary training.* This 
information was submitted to the State department by the county superintendents, 
and covers the teaching force for the current year 1919-20. 

Two facts, however, should be kept in mind in analyzing the data issued by the 
State department: First, that teachers holding permanent certificates are not 
included, which, on the basis of this study, would undoubtedly raise the percentage 
of teachers not having had secondary education;^ and second, that the data com- 
prise all teachers under county supervision rather than the teachers in one-teacher 
schools, exclusively, tending therefore to lower the percentage of teachers without 
secondary education, since a much larger proportion of the teachers in one-teacher 
rm'al schools hold provisional and professional certificates than in the two-teacher 
rural, village, and borough schools.'' 

These facts would all the more strongly warrant the conclusion that, as before 
stated, 25 per cent of the teachers without secondary education in one-teacher schools 

3 See p. 48. 

< Study in Teacher Shortage, Dept. Pub. Instruction of Pa., 1919-20 (unpublishtsd). 

6 See p. 49. 

6 See pp. 39, 40. 



32 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



is surely not too high an estimate, and the exact per cent would likely be between 
the 25 per cent and the 39 per cent recorded by the teachers themselves in the 
questionnaires. 

On the basis of the data presented, applying these percentages to the 10,000 teachers 
in one-teacher rural schools of the entire State, it would mean that approximately — 

3, 900 began teaching without secondary education; of these, 2,500 from the ele- 
mentary schools without any additional training, 1,400 with ninth and 
tenth grade advanced elementary training. 
700 with secondary training of less than one year. 
400 with secondary training of one year. 
1, 100 with secondary training of two years. 

1, 700 with secondary training of three years. 

2, 200 completed a four years' secondary course. 



10, 000, total. 

PROV.C 



28 



y/^/A\\\\\\\ 



72 



9 II 



4C 



20 32 

e o 

Y///M\\\\\\\\\\ 

13 13 15 19 



?im. 



eo 



40 



55 



ZQ 5 9 6 
AS 



7 12 16 10 

39 61 



17 



22 



NO 5CC.ED. CZZl 

TWOYRSDHID 



ONt YR 
ThRtL YR5. 



OR IE55 ^ 
^m rOUR YR5. 



Dl^gram 1. — Percentage of touchers iu one-teacher rural schools, by certificates, on the basis of their 

secondary education. 

The secondary education of the teachers represented in the 8 typical counties in 
Table 25, Division B, following the distribution for the entire group of 18 counties, 
shows considerable variation. In the first place the range in percentage of teachers 
ha^^.ng secondary education extends from 36 to 78. Among those who have finished 
a four-year course in a high school or an academy, the difference in per cent between 
the lowest county and the highest one is 31, county 5 indicating 7 per cent and county 
7 indicating 38 per cent. While there is evidently considerable variation in the 
counties in the number of teachers spending less than four years in high school, the 
counties showing the large proportion of teachers with two and three years of high- 
school education possess a goodly number of two and three year high schools, respec- 
tively, throughout their counties.' 

Counties 5 and 8 stand out prominently because of the large number of teachers 
who reported attending secondary schools less than one year. This may be due in 
part to the fact that private academies are located in these counties offering both to 
teachers in service and to prospective teachers a spring or summer normal course for a 
period of six weeks. While it is not our purpose at this point to discuss fully these 
academies which conduct normal school courses, yet the influence of these schools in 

' Eleventh An, Rept. Pa. State H. Sch. Inspectors, p. 14. 



ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. 



33 



the counties where they are located is quite marked, as will be shown in the latter 
part of this discussion dealing with the training of teachers in service. The counties 
that have this type of school show a higher percentage of teachers with academic or 
professional training than those counties which do not possess schools offering similar 
opportunities either for prospective teachers or for teachers in service. 

In comparison with other States from which we have data, it appears that Pennsyl- 
vania on the basis of this study does not rank very well in the number of teachers 
with secondary education in one-teacher rural schools. It should be remembered 
that the percentages for Pennsylvania are strictly for one-teacher schools and that 
in some of the other States cited all rural schools, including \dllage schools of two 
and more than two teachers, were considered. 

Table 26. — Education of teachers in one-teacher rural schools. 





Ala- 
bama.i 


Colo- 
rado. 2 


Nebras- 
ka.3 


Peimsyl- 
vania. 


South 
Dakota.< 


Vir- 
ginia.5 


Elementary education onlv 


16.0 
10.1 
17.2 
18.0 
38.0 


7 


4 

9 

16 

15 

36 


6 2o 

18 
18 
17 
22 




9 6 


One year of high school or less 




3 3 


Two years of high school -. 


16 




9 4 


Three years of high school 




10 2 


Four years of high school 


'3.5 


^ 58 


Ml.O 





1 Educational Study of Alabama, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1919, No. 41, p. 349. 

2 Administration and Support of the Colorado School System, U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui. 1917, No 5 p 74 

3 The Rural Teacher of Nebraska. U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui. 1919, No. 20, p. 31. 

4 Educational System of S. Dakota, U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p 213. 
6 Virginia Public School Survey, p. 334. 

6 See explanation p. 31. 
^ Per cents do not total 100. 

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. 

To consider the professional training of this group of teachers in the one-teacher 
rural schools means, under the present certificate system in Pennsylvania, practically 
the exclusive consideration of those teachers who have attended a State normal 
school. This information is tabulated in Table 27, which shows that, out of 1,445 
teachers, 1,105, or 76 percent, report having had no State normal school training. 
This indicates that the remaining 340, or 24 per cent, attended a normal school for a 
period ranging from 6 weeks to 4 years in length, of which number 264, or 18 per cent 
completed the normal school course. It will be seen that this percentage of normal 
school graduates is higher than the average, which is 14 per cent for the entire State 
of Pennsylvania, based on the reports of 28 counties in 1919, as will be explained in 
the next chapter.* This helps to substantiate the view that a good proportion of 
the better educated and professionally trained teachers in each of the counties repre- 
sented in this study answered the questionnaires. 

Table 27. — Distribution of teachers on the basis of normal school education in prepaj-a- 
tionfor teaching — Total distribution for 18 counties, followed by 8 typical counties. 





Teach- 
ers re- 
port- 
ing. 


With- 
out 
normal 
school 
educa- 
tion. 


With 
normal 
school 
educa- 
tion. 


Normal school education. 


Nor- 
mal 
school 
grad- 
uates. 


Per 
cent 
with 
normal 
school 
educa- 
tion. 


Per 




Less 
than 
lyr. 


1 

yr. 


2 

yrs. 


3 

yrs. 


4 

yrs. 


normal 
school 
grad- 
uates. 


Total distribution 18 
counties 


1, 445 
100 


1, 105 
76 


340 

24 


40 
3 


1 


142 
10 


91 
6 


25 
2 


264 
18 






Per cen4; 






Distnbution of Typi- 
cal Counties: 
1 


47 
99 
62 
40 
110 
53 
107 
119 


34 
43 
43 
28 
68 
37 
83 
99 


13 
60 
19 
12 
41 
16 
24 
22 


9 
6 
4 

2" 
3 
5 
11 


2 
6 
2 
5 
16 
1 
3 
2 


2 
21 

8 

5 
IS 

4 
10 

5 






2 
55 
13 

5 
37 
12 
13 

9 


28 
61 
31 
30 
37 
30 
22 
18 


4 


2 


20 
6 
1 
4 
5 
3 
4 


7 

'""i' 
1 
3 

3 


56 


3 


21 


4 


13 
34 


5 


6 


23 
12 


7 


8 


7 





8 See p. 40. 



34 STATUS or RURAL TEACHER IN" PENNSYLVANIA. 

The largest group of teachers, namely 10 per cent, of those reporting State normal 
school education had attended for a period of two years, indicating that these either 
had graduated from a four-year high school and spent two years in a normal school, 
or had attended a State normal school for a period of two years under what was known 
as the two-year course which existed for a period of years prior to the year 1904.* 
During that time it was possible for a student to complete the elementary school and 
graduate from a normal school in two years without any preliminary education. 
From 1904 to 1914, normal schools in Pennsylvania had what was known as a three- 
year course, which admitted students either from an elementary school or from a 
high school, meaning that the 6 per cent group in the table attending a normal school 
for three years in most cases had entered the school without any high-school educa- 
tion. The 25 teachers reporting that they had attended a normal school for four 
years are usually persons who had gone to the normal school directly from the ele- 
mentary grades, thereby making it serve both as the secondary school and the pro- 
fessional training school. 

In the individual counties following the general distribution, the range in per 
cent of teachers having attended a normal school extends from 18 to 61, while for 
those who completed the normal course, th per cents range from 4 to 56. Counties 2 
and 5, having the largest number of teachers who attended and graduated from a 
normal school are 2 of the 13 counties of the State in which State normal schools are 
located. 

Undoubtedly the most significant fact as brought out in these data is that at least 
76 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher schools entered upon their work without 
professional training in State normal schools by the examination route, made pos- 
sible by the Pennsylvania certificate system, which will be discussed more at length 
in the next chapter. We have very little comparative data from other States per- 
taining exclusively to the rural school teacher, yet from the meager information we 
do have, it appears that Pennsylvania ranks very low. For example, in South Da- 
kota, according to the recent school survey of that State, it is estimated that 45.8 
per cent of the teachers attended professional schools and that 54.2 per cent entered 
the rural schools without professional training.'" In Alabama it is also estimated 
that 63.6 per cent of the teachers teaching in rural and village schools had no pro- 
fessional preparation." Wliile the rural schools as defined in both of these surveys 
may not be as closely confined to the one-teacher school as in this study, yet the com- 
parison is most significant in that Pennsylvania, on the basis of the numl^er of cases 
represented in this discussion, ranks lower than a typical western and a typical 
southern State. 

In New York State only 8 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools are grad- 
uates of State normal schools, a percentage considerably lower than that for Penn- 
sylvania.'- However, "approximately 60 per cent of the teachers in these schools 
have had one year of professional training in training classes either added to four 
years of high school, or added to an incomplete high-school course." '^ Since the 
State of Pennsylvania has no teacher training institutions specially intended to pre- 
pare elementary teachers other than the 13 State normal schools, it would seem at 
least on the basis of comparison with our neighboring State New Y'ork, with its 11 
State normal schools, that these facts give us additional evidence in favor of the 
immediate establishment of larger and more adequate teacher training facilities in 
Pennsylvania. 

9 Pennsylvania State Nor. Sch. catalogues. Proc. State Normal School Prinnipals. 

10 Educ. System of S. Dak., U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 231. 

11 Educ. Study of Alabama, U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bill., 1919, No. 41, p. 349. 

12 See p. 40. 

13 Engelhardt. "The Teaching Profession in the State of New York." 



AOABEMIC AlfD FBOFESSIOIf AI, TBAINLFG. 



35 



Table 28-. — Distribution of normal-school graduates in one-teacher schools for 18 counties 
on the basis of preliminary secondary education. 





Normal 
school 
gradu- 
ates. 


Without 
second- 
ary edu- 
cation. 


With 
second- 
ary edu- 
cation. 


Years of secondary education . 




Less than 
1 year. 


One 
year. 


Two 
years. 


Three 
years. 


Four 
years. 


Total distribution 18 
counties 


264 
100 


144 
55 


120 
45 


4 
2 


la 

5 


32 
12 


43 
16 


28 
10 


Percent 





An important observation that can be made from these data is the great variation 
in the amount of time actually spent in a normal school. This can probably be best 
explained by observing Table 28, which shows the percentage of the group of normal 
school graduates referred to in Table 27 from the standpoint of their preliminaiy 
secondary education. The range in time spent in a secondary school extends from 
six weeks to four years. Of the 45 per cent, or less than one-half, of the normal school 
graduates reporting as having had preliminary secondary education only 10 per cent 
had finished a four-year high-school course, and 16 and 12 per cent stated that they 
hfid three yeara and two years of high-school education, respectively. It is, indeed, 
most interesting to note that 55 per cent of the teachers holding normal-school cer- 
tificates or diplomas had gone directly to a State normal school without any secondary 
education. 

These data help to explain the tremendous variation in length of time spent in the 
normal schools by those who had graduated, as was brought out earlier in this dis- 
cussion. Since the normal schools in Pennsylvania have been admitting students 
with all kinds of academic preparation, ranging from the pupil who had finished the 
eighth grade in the elementary school to one who had completed a four-year high- 
school course, it is quite evident that one must naturally expect to find such tre- 
mendous variations both in the case of the preliminary secondary education and in 
that of the time spent in the normal school. 



ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING DURING SERVICE. 

The different kinds and amount of academic and professional training of which 
the teachers in the one-teacher schools avail themselves during service are tabulated 
in Tables 29 and 30. In the first place, it should be noted that only 1,085, or approxi- 
mately 75 per cent, of all the tea.chers who replied to the questionnaire gave this 
information. Of those who reported, 676, or 62 per cent, have had no academic or 
professional schooling since entering the teaching profession. Of the 38 per cent 
who reported such supplementary training 10 per cent attended summer academies, 
8 per cent summer local or county normal schools, 12 per cent summer normal schools, 
and 6 per cent summer colleges, all ranging fi-om one to four summer terms of six 
weeks each. In studying more in detail the kind of institution selected by these 
teachers in individual counties, it was found that two factors predominated in deter- 
mining this selection — ^first, the kind of certificate held by the teacher, and second, 
the land of school most accessible. The former was found true from the fact that 
teachers usiially select a school that helps them to obtain the academic schooling in 
such branches as algebra, general history, plane geometry, etc, studies in which 
they are called upon to pass an examination to qualify for either a professional or per- 
manent certificate. This will be more specifically discussed in the next chapter in 
considering the academic and professional preparation and training in service of 
the teachers holding the different types of certificates. 



36 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



Table 29. — Supplementary academic, and professional training of teachers during serv- 
ice. — Total distribution for 18 counties followed by 8 typical counties. 





No 
train- 
ing 
dur- 
ing 
serv- 
ice. 


Train- 
ing 
dur- 
' ing 
serv- 
ice. 


Summer 
academy. 


Summer 
local or 

■ county nor- 
mal school. 


Sumimer 

State normal 

school. 


Summer 
college. 


Corre- 
spond- 
ence 




Weeks. 


To- 
tal. 

109 

2 
.... 

8 
3 
21 

"19 


Weeks. 


To- 
tal. 

93 

9 
13 

'"2 

""ii 

2 
21 


Weeks. 


To- 
tal. 

129 


Weeks. 


To- 
tal. 


and 

miscel- 
laneous. 




6 

41 

1 

'i 

5 
2 
7 

io 


12 

37 

1 

] 
'5 


IS 
18 

"2 
'3 
'3 


24 
13 

'i 

"5 

i 


6 

48 

1 
5 

i 

'4 

1 

6 


12 
29 

3 
3 

'i 

■? 

9 


18 
5 

2 
3 

i 

'4 


24 
U 

3 
2 

"3 

"2 


6 
64 

2 

"i 
4 

13 
3 
1 


12 

28 

1 

'3 
3 
5 
3 


18 

IS 

"2 

'2 
2 

'3 


24 

19 

1 
2 
6 

'2 

1 

'2 


6 
44 


12 


IS 


24 




Total distribution (18 

counties). 
Typical counties: 


676 


409 


12 


4 




60 


18 


22 
19 
65 
40 
76 
56 
39 
56 


16 
17 
23 
21 
34 
46 
9 
53 


4 
2 
15 

7 

22 

9 

1 

10 


1 

2 
5 
2 
4 
2 
4 
2 


1 
1 
2 
1 


i 
1 
1 




1 
2 
6 
3 
7 
4 
5 
2 




2 




3 


1 


4 


1 


5 


2 


6 


1 


7 


1 


8 


1 







Table 30. — Suppleraentary academic and professional training of teachers during service 
in per cent — Total distribution for 18 counties followed by 8 typical counties. 





Per cent 
without 
training 
during 

service. 


Per cent 
service. 


Summer 
local or 
county 
normal 
school. 


Summer 

State 

normal 

school. 


Summer 
college. 


Corre- 
spond- 
ence and 
miscella- 
neous. 


Total per cent (18 counties) 


62 


38 


10 


8 


12 


6 


2 


Typical counties: 

1 


58 
53 
74 
66 
69 
55 
81 
51 


42 
47 
26 
34 
31 
45 
19 
49 


5 


24 
36 


10 
6 
17 


3 
5 
7 




2 




3 


1 
13 

3 
20 


1 


4 


3 


11 5 


2 


5 


20 
9 
2 
9 


6 

4 
11 
2 


2 


6 


11 
4 
19 


1 


7 


2 


8 


IS 


1 







The second factor above referred to may best be illustrated by looking into the 
supplementary- training of this group of teachers as shown in the 8 typical counties 
constituting the second part of the table. For example, in counties 3 and 5 the larger 
proportion of the teachers attended the summer session at one of the State normal 
schools. Since each of these counties has a State normal school located within its 
boundaries, naturally the school is most accessible for the teachers, and this caused 
them to select this school intended primarily for teacher training. On the other hand, 
in counties 6 and 8 a large proportion of the teachers select courses in summer academies 
and local or county normal schools. Both of these counties show a veiy small pro- 
portion of teachers attending a summer State normal school. According to the infor- 
mation obtained from the county superintendent, in the case of county 8 there are 
two private academies and four summer local or county normal schools. The latter 
are usually conducted by high-school principals in certain parts of the county who. 
probably with the aid of one or two additional teachers, provide a number of academic 
courses especially intended to prepare teachers to qualify for examinations, either foi 
additional subjects to the certificate already held or possibly for the next higher cer- 
tificate. In many cases the professional training in these schools is limited to a class 
in school management, using one of the well-known traditional texts in the develop- 
ment of the subject. 



ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. 



37 



One other observation should be pointed out. It was found that the counties 
which show the lowest percentage of teachers who avail themselves of the opportunity 
of supplementary education or training are usually the ones which have the least 
number of available schools offering courses during the summer months. It seems 
very evident from these facts that the accessibility of the school or schools found in 
any particular county has a direct bearing on the kind and amount of academic and 
professional training of teachers in rural schools. 

It would seem from the material presented in this discussion, indicating in the 
first place a very low proportion of teachers having secondary education and a still 
larger proportion that have no professional training, that in order to raise the standards 
of the teaching force in our rural schools the matter of providing a larger number of 



PROV. 



69 



31 



8 10 10 21 



PROF. CZ 



PERM, cz: 



NORMAL [ 
TOTAL 



NO SURTR. 
SACADEMY 



C0MS.arM!5C 




a \0 !2 6 2 




S.STATE NORMAL 
S.COLLEGE 



.LOCAL CO. NORMAL 



Diagram 2. — Percentage of teachers in one-teacher schools on the basis of their supplementary 
academic and professional training during service. 

schools offering both academic and professional training is one of the most pressing 
educational questions before the State at the present time. The 13 counties in which 
the State normal schools are located have a very great educational advantage in pro- 
viding facilities for training teachers as opposed to the 53 counties not having such 
schools in their midst. Whether the additional training for rural teachers in Pennsyl- 
vania can best be conducted in high schools — the plan followed in the State of Minne- 
sota ^* — or in county training schools, of which Wisconsin has furnished us a notable 
example, ^^ it is not within the scope of this monograph to siiggest. But all will agree 
that it shows unmistakably that something must be done in the remainder of these 
53 counties not possessing State normal schools to increase the supply of academically 
and professionally trained teachers to meet the great demand for teachers to fill the 
schools under county superintendents' supervision and especially the one-teacher 
schools in the open country. 



i< Foght. The Rural School System of Minnesota, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1915, No. 20, p. 43 
15 Laws of Wisconsin Relating to County Training Schools, sec. 411. 



Chapter V. 
CERTIFICATION. 



There are seven different kinds of teachers' certificates issued in Pennsylvania — 
provisional and professional, valid only in a county or district, and permanent State 
certificates, normal-school certificates, normal-school diplomas, provisional college 
certificates, and permanent college certificates, valid thi-oughout the State. The four 
kinds of certificates commonly held by rural teachers may be described as follows:' 

Table 31. — Principal features of teachers^ certificates in Pennsylvania. 



Name of cer- 
tificate . 


Issued by— 


Valid in- 


- 


Duration. 


Persistence 




County or district 


County or district 


Branches 






Provisional 


One year 


Hay not teach 




superintendent. 


(nonindori^able). 


named. 




more than 5 
school terms on 
certificate. 


Professional 


County or district 


County or district 


...do 


Three years... 


Not renewable 




superintendent. 


(indorsable by 
other county or 
district superin- 
tendents in dis- 
tricts of 2d or 
3d class). 






more than 3 
times; renewable 
on examination 
in 2 of the elec- 
tive branches for 
a professional 
certificate not be- 
fore offered by 
the applicant. 


Permanent 


State superintend- 
ent of pubic in- 


State 


...do 


Life 
















struction. 










State normal- 


State normal 
school. 


. ..do 


...do 


Two annual 
school terms. 




school certifi- 








cates. 












State normal- 


State normal 


do 


...do 


Life or term 




school diploma. 


school. 






of years. 





There is, in addition, one other type of certificate held by a small proportion of 
teachers in elementary schools under the supervision of county superintendents — the 
county permanent certificate, discontinued through the adoption of the new Pennsyl- 
vania School Code in 1911. Since the number of teachers holding these certificates 
is email and since the certificates are valid for life, they will be included with the 
permanent State certificates. 

Inasmuch as the number of teachers holding the college provisional and permanent 
certificates in the elementary schools in townships and boroughs under county super- 
vision is so small as to be practically negligible, it is also deemed ad\isable not to 
consider these types of certificates. Thus it will be the purpose in this study to see 
the working out in actual practice of the provisional, professional, and permanent 
certificates, based practically on examination, and State normal-school certificates 
and diplomas issued as a result of attendance in a State normal school. 

1 Pennsylvania School Laws, and appendix, 1919, Art. XIII, sees. 1301-1324. Updegraff, Harlan. 
Teachers' Certificates Issued under General State Laws and Regulations, U. S, Bu. of Educ. Bui., 19H, 
No. 18, p. 96. 

38 



CERTTFICAIIOEr. 



39 



CERTIFICATES HELD BY TEACHERS IIST ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS. 



The number and proportion of the different types of certificates held by teachers 
in township districts of 28 counties of the State in the current year 1919-20 will 
be found in Tables 32 and 33, which represent 5,131 teachers, of whom 4,217 are in 
one-teacher schools, and the remainder, 914, in schools of two and more than two 
teachers. These statistics include all the teachers in townships listed on the official 
directories issued by the counties in the fall of 1919. The county superintendents 
indicated on these directories the kind of school taught and the certificate held by 
each teacher working under their super\dsion. 

Table 32. — Number of teachers in elementary one-teacher schools, and two and more than 
two-teacher schools, according to hind of certificates held, in 28 counties of the State. 





Division A 


.—One-teacher schools. 


; Division B.— Schools of two and more 
than two-teacher schools. 


No. of county. 


Certificates. 


Certificates. 




Pro- 
vi- 
sional. 


Pro- 
fes- 
sional. 


Per- 
ma- 
nent. 


Nor- 
mal. 


Col- 
lege. 


Total. 


Pro- 
vi- 
sional 


Pro- 
fes- 
sional. 


Per- 
ma- 
nent. 


Nor 
mal. 


Col- 
lege. 


Total. 


1.. 


142 
75 

126 
73 
72 
73 

113 

131 
13 
26 
41 
28 
55 
72 
93 
35 

183 
31 
53 
62 
60 
62 

169 
24 
71 
57 
72 

176 


41 
41 
79 
41 
60 
44 
40 
39 
24 
12 
4 
13 
21 
32 
54 
16 
64 
18 
26 
25 
22 
42- 
60 
13 
20 
35 
39 
56 


25 
16 

4 

9 
10 
11 

9 

8 
22 

4 
20 

I 
22 
11 
12 

8 
45 

2 
13 
19 
10 
10 

8 

6 
26 

7 
11 
80 


9 

11 

2 

2 

48 

45 

56 

1 

1 

5 

147 

9 

51 

8 

2 

10 

67 

3 

15 

16 

9 

29 

4 

3 

1 

8 

18 

26 


2 
....„ 

"'i' 
'"'i' 

4 
2 


219 

143 
211 
128 
190 
175 
218 
179 

60 

48 
216 

51 
149 
123 
161 

69 
359 

54 
107 
122 
101 
143 
241 

47 
118 
107 
140 
338 


21 

3 

8 

34 

7 

11 

13 

52 

1 

1 

1 


14 

1^6 
43 
14 
13 
8 
22 


4 
3 
2 
9 
4 
2 
4 
12 


7 
4 
3 

15 

14 

40 

13 

6 

1 

5 

14 




46 


2 


11 


3.- 


99 


4 


102 


5 


39 


6 


67 


7 


38 


8 


92 


9 


2 


10 


6 


""■"9" 


12 


11 


24 


12. 




13 


3 

8 
5 
2 
18 
3 


4 
1 
5 
1 
14 
3 


1 

■■■■4.' 

""14' 
1 


7 
3 
3 
1 
14 
1 




15 


14 


12 


15 


17 


1&. - . 


4 


17 


60 


18. 


8 


19 




20. 


3 

5 
14 
26 
5 
4 
10 
13 
22 


2 

""'1.5' 
20 
13 

'"'ik' 
10 

14 


3 
1 

5 
8 

12 
4 

20 


5 
2 
13 

4 
1 


1 


\\ 


21 


14 


22 


45 


23 


52 


24. 


24 


25 


12 


26 


39 

10 

5 


1 


80 


27 


37 


28 


61 






Total 


2,186 


981 


429 


606 


- 14 


4,217 


293 


257 


129 


230 


5 


914 






Range 


13-183 
41 
71 
93 
26 


4-79 
20 
35 
42 
11 


1-80 

8 

10 

19 

6 


1-147 

3 

9 

26 

12 




47-359 
101 
140 
190 

45 


0-52 

3 

7 

13 

5 


0-43 

1 

8 

14 

7 


0-20 
1 

4 

3 


0-10 
2 
5 
13 
6 




0-102 


First quartile 


12 


Median ... 


24 


Tiiird quartile 

Quartile deviation 


46 
12 



40 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PEN IST SYLVAN I A. 



Table 33. — Percentage of teachers in elementary one-teacher schools, and two and more 
than two-teacher schools, according to kind of certificates held, in 9.8 counties of the State. 





Division A.— One-teacher schools. 


Division 


B.— Two and more 
teacher schools. 


than two- 


No. of county. 


Certificates. 


Certificates. 




Provi- 
sional. 


Profes- 
sional. 


Perma- 
nent. 


Normal. 


Provi- 
sional. 


Profes- 
sional. 


Perma- 
nent. 


Normal. 


11 


65 
52 
60 
57 
38 
42 
52 
73 
22 
54 
19 
61 
37 
58 
58 
51 
51 
57 
,50 
51 
60 
43 
70 
51 
60 
53 
51 
52 


19 
29 
37 
32 
31 
25 
18 
22 
40 
25 
2 
25 
14 
26 
33 
23 
18 
33 
24 
20 
22 
30 
25 
28 
17 
33 
28 
16 


11.0 

11.0 

2.0 

7.0 

5.2 

6.0 

4.1 

4.4 

36.0 

9.0 

9.2 

1.9 

15.0 

9.0 

?.4 

11.0 

13.0 

3.7 

12.0 

16.0 

10.0 

7.0 

3.3 

13.0 

22.0 

6.5 

8.0 

24.0 


4.0 

8.0 
.9 

1.5 

25.0 

26.0 

25.6 

.5 

1.6 
10.4 
68.0 
18.0 
34.2 

7.0 

1.2 
1.5.0 
18.0 

5. 5 
14.0 
13.0 

8.9 
20.0 

1.6 

6.3 
.9 

7.4 
13.0 

7.6 


45 
27 
27 
34 
18 
16 
34 
56 
50 
8 
4 


31 
9.1 
55 
42 
36 
20 
21 
21 


9 
27 

7 

8 
10 

3 

10 
14 


15 


2 ^ 


36 


3 


10 


41 


15 


5 


36 


61 


60 


7 


34 


8 


6 


g 


50 


101 


50 




42 


111... 


38 


58 


121 






13 


20 
66 
29 
50 
30 
38 


26 
8 
29 
25 
23 
38 


6.6 


47 


14 


25 


15 


24 


18 


16 


25 


17 


23 
12 


23 


18 


12 


19 




20 


27 
35 
31 
50 
21 
33 
13 
35 
36 


18 




45 


21 


50 
7 
2 
20 
67 
15 
11 
33 


14 


22 


33 
39 
54 


29 


23 


7.6 




4.1 


25 




26 


23 
27 
23 


49 


27 . . 


27 




8 






Total percent.. 


52 


24 


10.0 


14.0 


32 


29 


14 


25 




19-73 

50 

52 

57 

5.3 


2-40 

19 

25 

30 

5.5 


1. 9-36 

5 

9 

12 

3.5 


0.5-68 
1.6 

8 

18 

8.2 


4-66 
20 
30 
36 

8 


0-55 

18 

25 

36 

9 


0-67 

2 

10 

20 

9 


0-60 


First fjuartile 


10 
25 


Third quartile 


36 

8 


1 College certificate t 


eachers in 


Table 32 n 


ot include 


3. 











From these tables it will be observed that 2,186 of the 4,217 teachers in the one- 
teacher schools hold provisional certificates; in other words, 52 per cent hold the 
lowest possible type of certificate in order to qualify as a teacher in the public schools 
of Pennsylvania. The number holding the professional or second kind of certificate 
is 981, or 24 per cent of the total number. Thus, 3,167, or 76 per cent of the entire 
number, hold certificates obtained through examinations given exclusively by county 
superintendents, while 24 per cent hold permanent State certificates and normal 
school certificates or diplomas. But only 606, or 14 per cent of the entire group, hold 
normal school certificates and diplomas. If, however, county 11, which has an unusu- 
ally large number of normal school graduates, were eliminated, the remaining 27 
counties would have but 459 out of 4,001, or 11.5 per cent normal school graduates in 
their one-teacher rural schools. 

Assuming that the proportion of normal school graduates in these counties is typical 
of the State as a whole, it will be seen that on the basis of 14 per cent for the 28 coun- 
ties there would be approximately 1,400 nonnal school graduates among the 10,000 
teachers in one-teacher schools throughout the whole State. However, if the average 
for the 27 counties, 11.5 per cent, is taken as a basis, there would be approximately 
1,150 normal school graduates teaching in these counties. Since, according to the 
annual report of the State superintendent of public instruction for 1918, there were 
7,404 normal school graduates teaching in the 23,800 schools under county supervi- 



CERTIFICATION. 



41 



3ion,2 there are approximately 6,000 normal school graduates teaching in the 13,800 
county schools other than one-teacher schools. 

When one considers that the number of one-teacher rural schools constitutes nearly 
one-half of the entire number of teachers under county supervision, a striking contrast 



No. of 

County 
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 

13 
l\ 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 

TOTAL 



Per Cent. 



80 100 








ZI^^^^^^^ 




:^^^^^^^^^ 



Provisional 



Professional 



Permanent 



Normal 



DiAGEAM 3. — Percentage of teachers holding different kinds of certificates in elementary one-teacher 
rural schools in 28 counties of the State. 

is found between this one-teacher group, with only 14 per cent nomial school gradu- 
ates, and the two and more than two teacher group, with approximately 44 per cent 
of the teachers with normal school training. This demonstrates a most inequitable 
distribution of normal school trained teachers among the schools under county super- 



!Rep. State Supt. Pub. Instruction, 1918, pp. 610-11. 



-42 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PElsr]S:SYL,VA]SriA. 

viaix)n. It would seem that ii a more equitable distribution of trained teachers were 
established throughout the counties, greater impetus would be given toward solving 
the problem of raising the standard of the one-teacher rural schools in the State. 

Again, it is equally striking that 52 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools 
in the 28 counties considered hold pro\'isional certificates, which when interpreted 
for the entire State means that approximately 5,200 teachers in the one-teacher rural 
schools hold this certificate. In the report aboA-e referred to, issued by the State 
.department of public instruction, it will be found that 7,033 teachers out of the 23,800 
under county supervision held provisional certificates in 1918. Consequently the 
remaining 1,800 certificates must be held by approximately 13 per cent of the 13,800 
teachers in schools other than one-teacher school under county Buper\ision. This 
second comparison of the percentage holding provisional certificates between the two 
groups of teachers emphasizes just as strongly as in the case of the normal school 
graduates the very unfortunate inequitable distribution of teachers holding different 
types of certificates. 

CERTIFICATES HELD BY TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS OF TWO AND MORE 
THAN TWO TEACHERS. 

It may be seen at a glance, in Division B of Tables 32 and 33, from the number and 
kinds of certificates, that a larger proportion of the teachers in this class of schools 
are better trained than those in the one-teacher schools. For example, 293 out of the 
914 teachers hold provisional certificates, which is only 32 per cent of the whole number, 
as compared with 52 per cent in the one-teacher schools. On the other hand , 25 per 
cent hold normal-school certificates and diplomas as compared with 14 per cent in the 
one-teacher group. The number of teachers holding professional and permanent 
certificates is also proportionately liigher than in the one-teacher schools, although 
the difference is not so marked. The main fact in all of this is that the percentage 
of teachers holding higher certificates, thus indicating l>etter preparation and training, 
is appreciably higher among the teachers in schools of two and more than two teachers 
than in the case of the teachers in the one-teacher schools in the same counties. 

CERTIFICATES HELD BY TEACHERS IN BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

Since the writer had the information giving the kind of certificates held by the 
teachers in the borough elementary schools under supervision of the county superin- 
tendents in the same counties, it was found interesting to see how the certification of 
these teachers compares with that in the township schools previously discussed. 
The number of teachera holding professional and permanent certificates is practically 
the same as in the case of the one-teacher schools and of the schools of two and more 
than two teachers in townships, namely, 21 per cent professional and 15 per cent 
permanent. It was also found, as might l>e expected, that the per cent of normal 
school graduates teaching in boroughs is 58 per cent, or 44 per cent higher than that 
in the one-teacher schools, wliile conversely the per cent of proAdsional certificate 
teachers in the boroughs is only 6 per cent, or 46 per cent lower than that in the one- 
teacher schools. 

These facts emphasize all the more strongly the uueqiial distribution of kinds of 
certificates among county teachers, imphdng unequal academic and professional 
preparation in the different types of schools under county supervision. They help 
to sul)stantiate the evidence found elsewhere in this study that teachers with the 
higher grades of certificates either migrate voluntarily to the village schools of two and 
more than two teachers and the borough schools, or are frequently transferred arbi- 
trarily by school boards to the first type of schools just named in the same townslups; 
These vacancies thus caused in the one-teacher schools are, as the facts indicate, 



CEETIFICA.TION. 



43 



usually filled by teachers holding provisional certificates. The fact is already estab- 
lished that the ungraded one-teacher rural school is iisually taught by one with in- 
adequate academic preparation and practically no professional training or teaching 
experience. 

In Chapter II were presented the facts relating to the limiting conditions affect- 
ing the work of the rural teachers in one-teacher schools. Clearly they were of the most 
disadvantageous type. Naturally teachers avoid these schools if possible, and those 
in charge apparently are not willing to pay more to secure teachers for these more 
difficult positions. Hence our rural schools are being filled with the least com- 
petent among the entire teaching force. 



ANALYSIS OF THE PRACTICE OF CERTIFICATION BY COUNTIES. 

Turning now to the individual counties, it will be observed in Table 32, Division 
A, that the variation is most pronounced both among the kinds of certificates held by 

20 40 6.0 SO KX3 



iJ<2R15CIIO0L5C 



4S 



ABOVE ZRM5CH. cm 

A 



30 



2« 



Mn 



25 



48 



U 1$ 



fmm 



i\ 4 



31 



S z 



PROVISIONAL C£RT)f<CAT£ £Z3 fltOflS^IOSAL CERT/fiCArC EOT 

peeMAKCNT » ^a normal school 

COLLC^e. ESS SFICIAL. 

Diagram 4. — Percentage of teachers liolding various kinds of certifieates in different types of schools 

in Pennsylvania. 

the teachers of the same county and also among the separate counties. For example, 
in counties 1, 7, and 11 there are practically the same number of one-teacher schools, 
averaging 218 under county supervision. However, county 1 has 142 teachers hold- 
ing provisional certificates, county 7 has 113, and county 11 has 41. At the same 
time county 1 has 9 normal-school graduates, county 7 has 56, and county 11 has 147. 
In the case of the professional certificates, county 11 has only 4 teachers holding this 
class of certificate, while counties 1 and 7 have 41 and 40, respectively. 

Another very interesting comparison can be made among counties 6, 8, and 15, 
having approximately 170 one-teacher schools in the open country. County 6 has 
45 teachers holding normal-school certificates or diplomas, while counties 8 and 15 
show the astonishing record of having only 1 and 2 normal -school graduates respectively. 
In contrast with these figures, county 6 has 73 teachers with provisionsl certi- 
ficates, while counties 8 and 15 with practically no normal school trained teachers, aa 
was just pointed out, have 131 and 93 provisional certificate teachers, respectively. 

Counties 17 and 28 each with over 300 one-teacher schools — the lai'gest number of one- 
teacher schools among all the counties in the State — do not differ greatly in the number 
of teachers holding provisional and professional certificates. However, in the case 
of the normal -school certificates and diplomas, the former county has 67, while the 
latter has only 26, meaning that the first county has approximately three times as 



44 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

many normal -school trained teachers as the second. The number of permanent 
certificates held by the teachers in these two counties also varies considerably, in that 
county 28, with 80, has nearly twice as many as county 17, with 45. Table 33 also 
gives the percentages of each kind of certificates by counties. In examining the 
fourth column of Division A, which gives the per cent of teachers holding normal- 
school certificates and diplomas in one-teacher schools, it can be seen that the range 
in per cent extends from 0.5 to 68 per cent, or expressed in numbers (Table 32) the 
range would be from 1 normal school graduate in one county to 147 in another county. 
However, the percentage of teachers holding normal -school certificates and diplomas 
in the 14 counties representing the middle 50 per cent of the group range from 1.6 to 
18, with a quartile deviation of 8.2 per cent, indicative of a wide variation of per 
cent in the total distribution. These figures are really quite alarming when it is 
considered that 7 of these 28 counties have less than 2 per cent normal-school grad- 
uates teaching in the one-teacher rural schools. 

In the case of the provisional certificates, the per cents range fi'om 19 to 73; the mid- 
dle 50 per cent of the counties extend from 50 to 57 per cent, indicating a quartile 
deviation of 5.3 per cent, an unusually close grouping about the median, 52 per cent, 
thus showing less variation in the total distribution than that representing normal- 
Bchool certificates and diplomas. 

There are also differences apparent in the separate counties in regard to the pro- 
fessional and permanent certificates; the former having a range from 1 to 40 per cent, 
and the latter from 1.9 to 36 per cent. The permanent certificates have the shortest 
range and the lowest variation in per cents among the four classes of certificates in the 
various counties. 

The group of 26 counties for which we have data on the type of certificates held by 
the teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers, accoi'ding to Division B 
of Table 33, shows practically as great variation in the different types of certificates 
among the different counties as that in the case of the one-teacher schools. WTiile 
the percentage of teachers holding normal school certificates and dii3lomas, as we have 
mentioned before in this discussion is 25, or 11 per cent higher than that in the one- 
teacher school group, yet the range is nearly the same, extending from to 60 per cent. 
One-half of the difference between the per cent at the first quartile point and that at 
the thu'd quartile point is 8 per cent, indicating practically the same kind of distribu- 
tion as in the case of the normal certificates and diplomas in the one-teacher schools, 
although maintaining the higher level, as expressed in the median and quartile 
points, at all points on the scale. The median per cent in the case of the provisional 
certificates is 30, a decrease of 22 points from the median per cent of provisional 
certificates in the one-teacher schools; and the quartile deviation, which is 8 per 
cent, also shows a much greater variation in the different counties. 

These unusually wide variations in number and per cent of the four kinds of cer- 
tificates held by the teachers in one-teacher schools of 28 counties of the State this 
current school year, 1919-20, might be attributed to a number of varying causes. 
Naturally one of the first questions that might be asked is, which of these counties has 
one of the 13 State normal schools located within its boundaries or in an adjoining 
county? County 11 has 68 per cent of its teaching force in the one-teacher schools, 
normal school graduates, and at the same time has one of the largest normal schools in 
the State. County 13, with the second highest per cent of normal school graduates, 
namely, 34.2 is also a normal school county. On the other hand, county 17 has a 
normal school in its midst, but only 18 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools 
are normal school graduates. While there can not be any question that a normal school 
located in a particular county makes for a larger number of normal school graduates 
available for the schools of that county, if for no other reason than the fact that practi- 
cally every normal school in the State shows by its catalogue that the largest niimber 
of students from any one county are residents of the home county, yet the third county 



CERTIFICATION. 45 

above referred to would certainly give us adequate reason to believe that simply the 
normal school 's location in the county is not the exclusively controlling factor to which 
should be attributed the high percentage of normal school graduates teaching in a 
normal school county. 

Four of the counties listed in Tables 32 and 33 adjoining normal school counties are 
6, 14, 18, and 28, in which there are 26, 7, 5.5, and 7.6 per cent of normal school graduates 
teaching in the one-teacher schools, a variation which makes it difficult to determine 
just how far the proximity of a normal school in an adjoining county is a constant 
factor. On the other hand, counties 5, 7, and 22 do not have a normal school within 
their boundaries and are not in close proximity to counties having normal schools, 
but they have the high percentages of 25, 25.6, and 20 per cent normal school graduates 
in the one-teacher schools, respectively. It is evident that these three counties, at 
least, are typical of a class on which other influences apart from the location of a State 
normal school are important factors. 

It was found that the counties having the largest number of normal school graduates 
as a rule have a large proportion of school districts with eight and nine months' school 
terms, with commensurately higher salaries, caused by the longer term. It would 
seem that, at least in some counties, the length of school term is another factor in 
explaining the higher percentage of normal school certificates and diplomas. On the 
other hand, as will be shown in the chapter on salaries, the very marked tendency on 
the part of many school districts in some of the counties for paying the lowest minimum 
salary required by law has a tremendous bearing in accounting for the kind of certificate 
held by the teachers in such districts. Many school boards hire the teacher with the 
lowest type of certificate, requiring thereby the lowest minimum salary, in order to 
keep the teachers' salaries for their particular district as low as possible. 

While conditions as previously stated are unquestionably responsible in part for the 
tremendous variations in number and kinds of certificates frequently found between 
adjoining counties, nevertheless there is undoubtedly another very important factor, 
extremely difiicult to measure, namely, the influence of the educational leadership 
in the different counties. While we have no direct evidence to substantiate this point 
of view, yet by weighing the facts already set forth we believe that we are reasonably 
safe in saying that the leadership in some of the counties has a tremendous beariog 
in maintaining high educational standards in regard to certificates, particularly 
in those counties where educational leadership wields a potent influence with members 
of the school boards of the different school districts. 

CEKTIFICATES OVER A THREE-YEAR PERIOD. 

Since the data thus far presented on certificates give us information concerning the 
number and kinds of certificates held by the teachers for the current school year 
1919-20, it might be well to see how the certificate situation varies over a period of 
years. In the accompanying Table 34 will be found the number and kinds of cer- 
tificates held by the teachers in the one-teacher schools as indicated by the county 
superintendents in their teachers' directories in five typical counties from different 
parts of the State for the school years 1917-18, 1918-19, and 1919-20, respectively. 
At a glance it will be seen that there is a marked variation in some of these counties 
over the three-year period, especially in the case of the provisional certificates and of 
the normal school certificates and diplomas. This is probably of all the more interest 
since during the year 1917 and part of 1918 we were in the World War, causing certain 
social and economic conditions which in education resulted in a tremendous scarcity 
of teachers throughout the whole country. Its effect in 1919 would probably be felt 
all the stronger in the one-teacher schools in the rural districts, in view of the facts 
and conditions revealed throughout this study. 
73438°— 22 4 



46 



STATUS OF RUKAL, TEACHER IN PENNSYLVAISriA. 



Table 34. — tUstribution of certifiaites over a period of three yeata, 1917, 1918. and 1919, 
in one-teacher schools in Jive typical counties. 



Counties. 


Pro\Tsioual, 
in year — 


Professional, 
in year — 


Permanent, 
in year— 


Normal cer- 
tificate and 
diploma, in 
year— 


Total, in year— 




1917 


1918 


1919 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1917 


1918 


1919 


No. of county: 


87 
47 
44 
149 
56 


92 
61 
50 
176 
62 


66 
73 
55 
183 
59 


71 
46 
24 
74 
33 


56 
47 
22 
64 
25 


58 
44 
21 
64 
25 


8 
14 
21 
48 
16 


12 
12 
22 
47 
19 


10 
11 

22 
45 
19 


49 
65 
60 
95 
20 


30 
53 

55 
75 
16 


42 
45 
51 
67 
17 


215 
172 
149 
366 
125 


190 
173 
149 
362 
122 


176 


2 


173 


3 


149 


4 


359 


5 


120 







While differences in the three years are scarcely pronounced enough to support 
marked conclusions, the several noticeable tendencies should probably be given 
consideration. In the first place the number of proAisional certificates is larger in 
1919 than in 1917 in four of the five counties, as shown in the table. It will be readily 
observed that in county 1 the number of pro-\dsional certificates is less in 1919 than in 
1917, but by observing the totals at the end of the table it will also be seen that this 
county has 39 less one-teacher schools in 1919 than in 1917 — incidentally the only 
county in the gi'oup that shows a marked falling off of the one-teacher schools over 
this period of three years — indicating that the proportion of provisional certificates 
in this county is also practically the same. 

In the case of the professional certificates the number in each one of the five counties 
is less in 1919 than in the previous years. The number of permanent certificates in 
counties 1, 3, and 5 shows a slight increase in the third year over the first. The most 
striking information furnished through the statistics is found in the group of teachers 
holding normal school certificates and diph^mas, where in each of the five counties 
the number is less in 1919 than in 1917. This difference ranges from 3 in county 5 to 
28 in county 4, which fact is all the more surprising since the latter county is the one 
county among the group that has a normal school located within its boundaries. 

teachers' certificates in relation to experience. 

It will be recalled that one of the main requisites for teachers to qualify for a cer- 
tificate in Pennsylvania higher than the provisional or first grade certificate is the 
number of years of experience. In order to see how this works out in practice, the data 
which the teachers gave through the questionnaires concerning their experience and 
the type of certificates are arranged in Talile 35. The median years of experience for 
the four kinds of certificates as listed in the above-mentioned table range from 0.9, in 
the case of the teachers holding provisional certificates, to 15.9, in the case of those 
holding permanent certificates. Teachers with professional certificates and normal 
school certificates or diplomas reported practically the same amount of experience, 
namely, 4.9, and 4.5, respectively. 

The very low experience of the teachers holding provisional certificates can readily 
be explained from the fact that 294 out of the 685 teachers reporting were new teachers 
without any previous experience. It is also of interest to note that approximately 
85 per cent of the group with provisional certificates had less than 2 years' teaching 
experience. The five-year limit that the new school code has placed on this certifi- 
cate for possible yearly renewal l)y examination would automatically tend to keep 
down the years of experience.^ 

s Pa. Sch. Laws, and app., 1919, Art. Xin, sec. 1302. 



CERTIFICATTOF. 
Table 35. — Distribution oj certificates on basis of years of experience. 



47 







Years of experience. 


To- 
tal. 


Per 

cent. 


Median 


Certificates. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7. 


8 

3 
14 
6 

8 


9 

'ii 

9 
9 


10- 
14 

6 
41 

48 

26 


15- 
19 

2 
11 

29 

20 


20- 
24 

'"3 

16 

15 


25- 
29 

"i 

14 
3 


30- 

34 


35- 
39 


40- 
49 


50 

or 

over. 


years of 
experi- 
ence. 


Provisional 


294 


86 


ISl 
21 


68 
36 


28 
53 

7 

24 


6 
41 

8 

7 


8 

48 

9 

13 


1 
27 

8 

7 








685 
315 
194 

254 


47 
22 
13 

18 


0.9 


3 




2 
5 


■"'"6 


4.9 








18 
4 


11 

4 


15.9 


Normal certificate 
or diploma 


50 


29 


25 


10 


4.5 










Total 


34-1 115 


227J114 


112 


62 


78 


43 


31 


32 


121 


62 


34 


18 


27 


15 


7 


6 


1,448 


100 


3.3 



Since the school laws of Pennsylvania require teachers to have 2 years of successful 
experience before they can qualify for the professional certificate, the years of expe- 
rience in this group must necessarily be considerably higher than for those holding 
provisional certificates. Fiuthermore, a professional certificate can be renewed three 
times for a period of three years each.* It would seem that under these circumstances 
the median years, 4.9, for the group holding professional certificates is low, meaning 
that 50 per cent out of the 315 teachers reporting have had an experience anywhere 
from 2 years to approximately 5 yeara. Again, over 70 per cent of the group had 7 or 
fewer years of experience. These facts would indicate that the 12 years' limitation 
placed upon the certificate would seem to cause many of these teachers to qualify for 
the permanent certificate and normal -school certificate or diploma. 

The group of teachers holding normal-school diplomas or certificates shows by far 
the widest distribution of years of experience. The middle 50 per cent of the teachers 
reported teaching experience extending from 1.5 to 12.6 years, indicating that the 
upper 25 per cent range in experience approximately from 12.6 to 40 years. Since the 
average teaching life of a normal-school graduate from the Pennsylvania State normal 
schools is estimated at 3-^ years,^ it is safe to conclude that the experience of the teachers 
holding normal-school certificates or diplomas in the one-teacher schools is probably 
high in comparison with the group of teachers in ail types of schools holding normal- 
school diplomas. In spite of the fact that there is a general tendency for normal-school 
graduates to try to secure teaching positions in urban communities just as soon as 
possible after having had a year or two of experience in the rural schools, the bimodel 
distribution of the teachers holding normal-school diplomas, indicated by 54 per cent 
having 4 years or less experience and 30 per cent having 10 or more years of experience, 
would help to bear out the conclusion that normal-school gi-aduates either remain in 
the one-teacher rural schools for a very limited number of years or continue for an 
indefinite length of time in this type of school. 

CERTIFICATES AND AGE OF TEACHERS. 

In the light of the pre\T.ous discussion concerning the experience of teachers, it 
might be expected that a somewhat similar relationship exists between the ages of 
teachers and the kinds of certificates held by this same group of teachers. In Table 36 
the median ages range from 20.3 for the teachers holding provisional certificates to 37.3 
for those holding a permanent certificate. It will be noticed, too, that in the group 
holding permanent certificates, 50 per cent of the 194 teachers reporting range from 37 
to 60 years or more in age. These facts are especially significant when one considers 
the very limited amount of academic preparation and professional training that this 
group of teachers possess. 

< Pa. Sch. Laws and App., 1919, Art. XIII, sec. 1304, 1306. 
6 Philips, Geo. M. An. Kept, for Normal Schools. 



48 STATUS OF KURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

Table 36. — Distribution of certificates on basis of age of teachers. 





Ages of teachers. 


Total. 


Per 

cent. 


Median 
ages. 


Certificate. 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24- 
25 


26- 
27 


28- 
29 


30- 
34 


3.5- 
39 


40- 
44 


4.5- 
49 


50- 
54 


55- 
59 


60 or 
over. 




149 


154 


12<5 
22 


87 
29 


49 

31 

3 

18 


30 

48 
9 

12 


30 
64 
10 

25 


14 
30 
11 

16 


8 
27 
13 

12 


22 
23 
41" 

19 


3 
24 
22 

13 


5 

7 

20 

15 


4 

1 

26 

15 








683 
313 
194 

255 


47 
22 
13 

18 


20.3 




4 
12 

6 


1 

16 

4 


2 
11 

1 


24.8 








37.3 


Normal certificate or 
diploma 


5 


26 


37 


31 


23.9 






Total 


154 


180 


187 


147 


101 


99 


129 


71 


60 


105 


62 


47 


46 


22 


21 


14 


1,445 


100 


23.0 







ACADEMIC PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AS RELATED 

TO CERTIFICATION. 

In Table 37 the number and per cent of teachers having had secondary education 
are distributed according to the kind of certificates held by the teachers respectively. 
It will be seen in Division B that the 61 per cent of the teachers reporting as having had 
secondary education are distributed as follows: Seven per cent, less than 1 year; 4 per 
cent, 1 year; 11 per cent, 2 years; 17 per cent, 3 years; and 22 per cent completing a 
four-year high-school course. As their education was considered at length in the pre- 
ceding chapter, it is the purpose in this discussion to analyze the secondary educa- 
tion as reported by the teachers on the basis of the kinds of certificates held. 

Table 37. — Distribution of teachers by certificates on basis of their secondary education. 

DIVISION A.— DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS. 





Teachers 
report- 
ing. 


Without 
second- 
ary edu- 
cation. 


With 
second- 
ary edu- 
cation. 


Years of secondary education. 


Certificate. 


Less than 
one year. 


One 

year. 


Two 

years. 


Three 
years. 


Four 
years. 


Provisional 


678 
308 
190 

264 


187 
121 
114 

144 


491 
187 
76 

120 


43 
28 
23 

4 


17 
12 
15 

13 


74 
41 
10 

32 


139 

48 
17 

43 


218 


Professional 


58 




11 


Normal certificate or 


28 






Total 


1,440 


566 


874 


98 


57 


157 


247 


315 







DIVISION B.— DISTRIBUTION IN PER CENTS. 





Per cent 
of teach- 
ers re- 
porting. 


Per cent 
without 
second- 
ary edu- 
cation. 


Per cent 
with sec- 
ondary 
educa- 
cation. 


Secondary education in per cents. 


Certificate. 


Less than 
one year. 


One 
year. 


Two 
years. 


Three 
years. 


Four 
years. 


Provisional 


45 
25 
12 

18 


28 
40 
60 

55 


72 
60 
40 

45 


6 
9 
12 

2 


3 
4 

8 

5 


11 
13 
5 

12 


20 
15 
9 

16 


32 


Professional 

Permanent 


19 
6 


Normal certificate or 
diploma 


10 






Total per cent.. 


100 


39 


61 


7 


4 


11 


17 


22 



CERTIFICATIOIT. 49 

Among those reporting four years of secondary education, the largest group, or 
32 per cent, hold provisional certificates; the second largest group, or 19 per cent, 
professional certificates; and the smallest group, or 6 per cent, are teachers under 
permanent certificates. In the case of the teachers having had three years of second- 
ary education, the largest proportion, or 20 per cent, are- again found among the 
provisional-certificate class, while the second largest proportion hold normal-school 
certificates or diplomas. An interesting fact, however, is that the largest per cent 
of teachers reporting one year or less, respectively, hold permanent certificates. 

In considering these teachers further from the viewpoint of the different types of 
certificates held and of the proportion without secondary education, it is a rather 
striking fact that the largest group is found to be those holding permanent certificates, 
the second largest those with normal-school certificates or diplomas, and the smallest 
those holding provisional certificates. Of course, it will be maintained that these 
conclusions should naturally be expected, since teachers holding permanent certifi- 
cates and normal-school diplomas and certificates are, as a rule, older and have had 
longer experience, but probably have not had the same opportunity to attend high 
schools as have the teachers holding provisional certificates and possibly those holding 
professional certificates, but having fewer years of experience. As a matter of fact, 
according to the classification of certificates as defined by the State law, the em- 
phasis is placed predominantly upon experience as a requirement for those who wish 
to obtain the professional and permanent certificates; and thus on account of an 
examination system of certification not requiring as a prerequisite any definite amount 
of academic or professional training in a secondary school, normal school, or college, 
frequently only slight consideration is given to such training. From the data pre- 
sented it appears that a tremendous argument would be set forth for an immediate 
revision of the . . . examination route . . . certificate system, since approxi- 
mately 75 per cent of the 10,038 teachers in one-teacher schools hold certificates issued by 
66 different county superintendents with the same possible number of county standards, 
in favor of one that will give greater credit for actual academic and professional educa- 
tion obtained in accredited schools. 

CERTIFICATES OF TEACHERS FROM STANDPOINT OF SUPPLEMENTARY 
TRAINING DURING SERVICE. 

Since the facts presented in the preceding chapter on the educational preparation 
of these teachers showed that only 5 per cent of the teachers holding provisional, 
professional, and permanent certificates had attended a normal school in preparation 
for teaching, apart from those who graduated from one of the Pennsylvania State 
normal schools, it was found that this small group was fairly equally distributed 
among those holding the three types of certificates above named. Consequently we 
shall restrict ourselves in this discussion to the supplementary academic and pro- 
fessional training of rural teachers received during ser^^.ce. By studying the data 
as shown in Tables 38 and 39, it is evident that only 38 per cent of the number of 
teachers reporting had received supplementary training during service. These are 
distributed as follows: Eight per cent in summer academies, 10 per cent in summer 
local or county normal schools, 12 per cent in summer State normal schools, 6 per cent 
in summer college courses for teachers, and 2 per cent by correspondence courses 
and miscellaneous ways. 



30 



STATirS or EiriLAl, TSACHES IX PEXXSYLYAXIA. 



^ 



Z.-T 


f 


• 

£=?£ 


5 


~ 1 


' i 


i 


^1 


1 a^^5J8- 


r 


1 


[ s 


' 


- 


1 


t I 2 


, r.^.-^--. 


"" : ! 


£ 




s -ira^ 


5 : 


1 


- 


f-1 


£ ~.S* 


S2 

- 


7 


r 


- -z- 


1 


S^ 


■M 1 — 


-^-=- 


- i 


i ^ 


5 i^ 


»r;-ff- = 


« • 


i 


- 


5? = =^ 


2 : ' 


=i 




^s 


ri?5 ; 


5* 




1 
1 


]5 


j -W^SB - 


= ■: 


o Z 


e r 


r._r. 


■^ 




i 
^ 1 -^ 


= - = 


3 






£r~ 


= 






if 


r = r- 


5^ 1 


= 








1 






-^5^ = 


I 




zi — 


-•= 


£r — 


^ 5^ = 


" 










— — - ~ 


^ 






















. 3i 











f2 ' 






























::j 


z *■ 


































z « 
















































































:« 
















•= 








•.§ 




























s. 






,■ c- 


.^ 






























= ? 


?H 






























































































— — 


'^ 


rt; 






'jZ. 


* — 


C ^ 


■ ? 






-X 


= c 


X^ 


c - 


















^ 


^ ff. 


— — 


= w 






a. 


:, ^ 


— C 


*. 1 


















s. 


is 














i^^ 


















fi 












<- 





















C?BE3nFICAJI03r. 



51 



Ife two fsKitMS de^^amaag ibe 'iip|ik imc-ncary trainiiie of teaelsess. aa pciated 
out IB tbe pseeediBg c&^^a' oq edncatioOj asse aaairt present. Tiie secacd factor, 
B»ii^, tibe aee^eibiiity ei acboeis. is probafafy moee <deaiiv aiicrvTs ia tlve cireviijra 
chspkesr in tbe ctdtiaai for Ae typka^ oocMies felfowiae Ae tc*^ dktrir/adon Ti^>ie 
2atv ; but the fiiat fseclor, tlie kiod «i eertific^^ h^d by the tea<dse'. sriiaca «?ac i&:.re 
cleariy io. Tables 3S azid 39^, idtace Ibe tesdoii^ ia service cast fae aoaaiy^ed hit em^ 
mKiv ol teadbos koldi^ &e diSes^ ^^pes of certigeaEes. 



Table 39 



iQ. — Distribution of teadten in, one-ieaAer s^aoh cm tke leaig (^ t&adim§ expg- 

n'?~j.v — T':t-2l dhatrHmvio-^. /'"" I' ■■.-rii".?''--'?. /■'■Tf.owed ha S mpical mieaties. 



Yeas of eiperaaiee. 



Total <iJ8tri- 



CJtlUKies. 



'Vrrm- 



8- 

9. 

BMl... 



SOorovia. 



Tofea- 

ifRffiam years of sxjieclQKe. 



334 



M 


1& 


S 


3 


M 


7 


i 


1 


» 


a 


a 


3 


S 


1 


3 





12 
3| 
6 

1 

a 



--1 



S 
13 

J 
U 

w 

3 

i! 

IS ! 



.50 



2G 



U 



7 

2a 



s 



9 
6 
3 
1 
1 



114- 

■L i 



The t^ehss holding aormal-scIiOQl c^lificafe^ or fiploaaas haine isd EttEe tsaiit- 
ii^ dsm^ service, aad those among' this groap "wiio tims reported tisnaEy atsenoed 
a s CTrmmpr coDege cooise or obtained additkmal t7f».fnfng- in a .^ nrnrTn^^ State iiGrmai 
schoc^ In tte (sese of ■fee teaciiejs holdiiig provisional, pjrojfesijnaL and pi^roaaent 
c^tifical^ sppptementary training is a mszst viial Sicttar in 3.fi^T-ng' xhexn to 5e»"Tire 
tte next bigtiest tjrpe «f c^tificate, according to die principles foEowed in tte Penn- 
sylvania exaTni?wntMiai! S3r5taDa. hx seeming ceruficates. It is of interest to note that 
IS per cent of these Eep«vted such snpplememary training in snitmier academies or 
lo<:al comity norma] scI»k)^ The largest per cent of teaehejs Ii£>Iding professksnal 
certificates attended smniser academies and loc-al coimty BGcmal sclboois, "SfMefa. is 
evidence ^lat th^e tesch^s elected the scliools -wMeh were not only loost ^x:e^Ke, 
but which alao b«?t aS^ded vasm. the academic preparation in the subjects listed for the 
particular certificate ior which they were applicante. As the aecessibility of schools is 
so dearfr d^EDera^rated in the eight typical counties in the jHevMos chaptsr, it do^ 
not seem necessary to paesent these counties on the basis ef certificates a second time. 
It is, however, fortunate that such conditions exist, since it probably helps to increase 
the number ot teachers who wiH avail themselves oc additional trarniog in service. 

It mi^t not be out of place here to give a bit of the writar's esperience in which 
tjte opportunity w^ aSocded to interview a number of rural teachers holding' pn>- 
viaflnal, pn^^siaaaal, and pemanent certificates in Pennsylvania wMIe helping to 
prepare the schedole <rf courses «rf these who attended one of the snmmer (j-weete' 
college courses in the State. In selecting their courses these teachexs invariabLy 
choae such Isanches at ^txniy as vsce needed for addttiaoal sabjeelB cd c@[ti§eat^ 



52 STATUS OF EUKAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

in order to qualify them for the next highes* certificate. They invariably selected 
academic subjects — frequently a review of such studies as algebra, general history, 
and Latin — rather than courses either academic or professional, of more immediate 
use to their professional work. This was particularly unfortunate, as this college 
specialized in courses in rural sociology, home economics, and agricultural subjects, 
affording for teachers coming from rural schools an unusual opportunity to enrich 
their knowledge and experience in a field of work so greatly needed in rural com- 
munities. 

From the data presented both in this and in the preceding chapter it seems opportune 
to emphasize again the great necessity for the changing of the certificate laws so that 
a greater premium will be put on both academic and professional training in accred- 
ited schools. But to do this, additional schools must be provided, especially in the 

53 counties that do not have a State normal school to assist in training, both aca- 
demically and professionally, the large number of new teachers needed each year 
in the rural schools. 



Chapter VI. 
EXPERIENCE AND TENURE. 



The number of years that teachers in the one-teacher schools remain in Ber\dce in 
the rural districts in Pennsylvania varies greatly. In Table 39 ^ it will be seen that the 
experience ranges all the way from the "beginners," or new teachers without any 
experience, to teachers claiming 55 years of teaching service. The median years of 
experience of the entire group of 1,445 teachers replying to the questionnaire is 3.7. 
This teaching service was generally performed in the rural districts, as only 90 teachers, 
or approximately 6.5 per cent of all the teachers constituting the study, reported 
having taught previously in borough or city schools. As this group comprises both men 
and women, it might be of interest to call the reader's attention to Tables 50 and 51 
in the discussion on teachers' salaries, ^ where the median years of experience for men 
is 7 and for women is 3.2, thus showing that there is a tendency for men, although 
fewer in number, to remain in the service longer than women. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that the average years of experience are kept down because of the 
fact that 334 teachers, or 23 per cent, are teaching for the first year, without any 
previous experience. By deducting this number from the entii'e group, the median 
for the remaining teachers with previous teaching experience is 5.3 years. Accord- 
ing to the data in the table, 319, or 22 per cent, had only 1 and 2 years of experience; 
216, or 15 per cent, 3 and 4 years of experience; and 262 teachers, or 18 per cent, 
reported that they had taught for a period of years ranging from 5 to 10 years. The 
most striking fact is that 314 or, 22 per cent, reported that they had tatight in rural 
districts for 10 or more years. 

In the 8 typical counties listed in Table 39, the range of experience varies consid- 
erably, as indicated by a median of 2.2 in county 4 and 5.9 in county 3. Comparing 
these counties from the point of view of the prevailing type of certificates in counties 4, 
1, and 7, in which the teachers average low in years of experience, the larger propor- 
tion hold provisional and professional certificates; while in county 3, in which the 
teachers rank high in years of experience, the larger proportion hold permanent and 
normal-school certificates and diplomas. In this connection it should be recalled 
from the previous chapter (Table 35) that teachers holding proAdsional certificates 
have 0.9 years of experience; those holding professional, 4.9; permanent, 15.9; and 
those having normal-school certificates and diplomas, 4.5.^ 

Experience, however, as discussed in this chapter, implies very little supervision. 
This can be clearly inferred from the large number of one-teacher schools in many of 
the counties with the supervision of only 1, 2, and possibly 3 superintendents, and 
again from the very little time that these superintendents can spend in the rural 
schools as reported by the teachers themselves in Chapter III. The median, 3.7 
years for teachers with experience in one-teacher rinal schools, ranks considerably 
higher in Pennsylvania than in certain other States for which we have data. For 
example, the median number of terms taught by all teachers in rural schools of Ne- 
braska is 1.85.4 For the entire State of Colorado in 1917 the teachers averaged 3 

1 Seep. 5. 

2 Seep. 73. 
s See p. 47. 

« Rural Teachers of Nebraska, U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1919, No. 20, p. 40. 

53 



54 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



years of experience. ^ An analysis of reports from the State of North Dakota showed 
in 1916 an average length of service for niral teachers of 2 years.^ The average teaching 
life of rural teachers in 1918 in South Dakota was 3.76.^ The recent Virginia survey 
shows that in 1918-19, the median number of years of experience for white teachers 
was 1.4.® The average experience of the teachers in one-teacher schools in New York 
State in 1919 was 6.7 years, a considerably higher average than that of Pennsylvania. ^ 
Experience for the riu'ai teachers for the United States as a whole is slightly over three 
years.'" 

STABILITY OF THE TEACHING FORCE. 

Table 40 shows the number of different schools in which the teachers represented 
in Table 39 who have had one or more years of experience haA'e taught. The median 
number of schools taught by the 1,050 teachers reporting is 3. The total distribution 
shows that 530, or slightly more than one-half the whole number, have taught in 3 or 
more schools; 234 teachers, or 22 per cent, taught in from 5 to 12 different schools; 
and 24, or slightly over 2 per cent, of the teachers claim that they ha^■e held positions 
in 12 to 20 different schools. This variation, shown for the group as a whole, is also 
e\'ident in the 8 t\"i)ical counties, in which the median number of schools taught 
ranges from 2.4 to 3.7, respectively. These facts seem to show a most perplexing 
situation, both for superintendents and teachers in that the teniu-e of siich a high 
percentage of teachers is so uncertain. 

Table 40. — Distribution of teachers on basis of number of different schools taught for IS 
counties, folloiued by 8 typical counties. 



Places taught. 


Total distribu- 
tion in 18 coun- 
ties. 








Counties. 










Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


1 


230 

290 

153 

119 

83 

60 

31 

29 

13 

18 

12 

5 

3 

2 

2 


22 
28 
15 
12 
8 
6 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 


6 
9 
3 
3 
6 
2 
3 


12 

14 

7 

4 

1 

"'i' 


19 
22 
23 
8 
4 
4 

...... 

1 
3 


9 

27 
6 
7 
7 
3 
2 
6 

I 

1 
2 


7 
14 
11 
6 
6 
4 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 


8 
10 
4 
3 
3 
3 


10 
14 

7 
6 
1 
1 


19 


2 


24 


3 


12 


4 


12 


5 


7 


6 


8 


7 


6 


8 


"■■3" 


1 


2 


9 


1 


""i 


1 


ift-ii 


3 


12-13 






1 


11-15 










1 


16-17 


1 


1 


1 




1 


18-19 








1 


1 


20... 




1 








1 




1 














Total 


1,0.')0 
3.0 


100 


34 

3.6 


40 

2.4 


89 
3.2 


72 
3.0 


62 

3.7 


35 

3.0 


40 

2.7 


99 




3.6 







The relationship between the number of years of experience and the number of 
different schools taught can probably be more clearly analyzed by studjang the 
following Table 41. The instability, and in many instances uncertain tenure, can 
be very plainly shown by observdng the group of 64 teachers with five years' teaching 
experience, of whom 28 have taught in 1 school, 18 in 2 schools, 24 in 3 schools, 11 in 
4 schools, and 3 in 5 different schools. Among those having had 10 years ' experience, 

6 The Administration and Support of the Colo. Sch. System, U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1917, No. 5, p. 74. 

6 Monahan, A. C, and Cooli, K. M., Survey of Wyoming, U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1916, No. 29, p. 52. 

' Educ. System of S. Dak. U.S. Bu.of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 210. 

8 Va. Pub. Sch. Survey, pp. 1.36 and 333. 

» Engelhardt. The Teaching Profession in the State of New Yorlc. 

w The Administration and Support of the Colo. Sch. System. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1917. 



EXPERIElSrCE AND TElJTUEB. 



55 



it ■will be seen that only 2 have taught in 1 school, 5 in 2 schools, 5 in 3, 8 in 4, 3 in 5, 
2 in 6, and 1 in 7, 8, and 9 different schools. 

The median number of schools taught for the entire group is 3, and the. median 
years of experience is 7.5. This higher median is accounted for by the fact that this 
group does not include the large proportion of teachers without any previous expe- 
rience. By drawing lines through these medians, 7.5 and 8, it will be observed that 
a very large majority of the cases are found in the quadrant 1 to 6 years of expe- 
rience and 1 to 3 schools taught, and likewise 6 to 40 or more years of experience 
and 3 to 20 different schools taught, also indicating that the number of places 
taught by these teachers increases in direct proportion to the number of years of 
experience. The coefficient of correlation for the entire group was found to be very 
high, r=.79 P.E. = zt.0078. (Pearson's Product-Moment Method.) 

Table 41. — Relation of number of years of experience to number of different schools 

taught. 



Experience. 


Different schools taught. 


Total. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10-11 


12-13 


14-15 


16-17 


18-19 


20 


1 


100 
82 
31 
16 
28 
8 
8 






























100 


2 


102 

37 

50 

18 

17 

8 

9 

7 

5 

6 

10 

2 

2 




























184 


3 


25 

25 

24 

18 

11 

10 

6 

5 

5 

10 

9 

4 

1 




' 






















93 


4 


,8 

11 

10 

14 

12 

8 

8 

3 

13 

8 

5 

6 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 
























99 


5. . . . 


3 

8 
6 
6 
7 
3 
5 
13 
10 
5 
6 
1 
3 
7 
1 
2 






















64 


6 


1 

"'i' 
1 

2 
1 
8 
4 
5 
1 
5 
1 
2 




















62 


7 


1 


















48 


8 


















38 


9 




1 

1 
1 
8 
6 
4 
1 

"'i' 

2 
3 


...„ 

1 

4 
5 
3 
1 
5 
3 
5 
1 
2 


1 
1 














31 


10 


2 














28 


11 














22 


12-11 




1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
5 
..... 


1 

1 
4 
3 
5 












68 


15-17 














47 


18-20 




1 
1 
3 










35 


21-23 




1 








23 


24-26 












23 


27-29... 






2 
1 
2 
1 




2 
1 

2 
1 






19 


30-3^. 






5 
1 
1 


3 
1 

2 


1 
1 
1 




2 


36 


35-39 






16 


40 or above 






1 




14 














Total 


275 


273 


159 


120 


66 


32 


29 


31 


20 


21 


11 


4 


6 


1 


2 


1,050 



r=.79 



P.E.= ±.0078. 



This unusual instability of the teaching force among the rural teachers can probably 
be accounted for largely by the practice of many school boards in school districts in 
rural communities transferring teachers freely from one school to another. Several 
county superintendents consulted on this point said that some school boards in their 
counties believe that a teacher should be transferred at least at the end of two years, 
and that by so doing not only will the efficiency of the teacher be increased, but the 
school will be greatly benefited by securing the "new" teacher. Then, again, the 
size of the school and the difficulty in management as viewed by the directors are 
factors which influence the transferring of teachers. It might be pointed out that 
Table 43 in this same chapter shows that 37 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher 
schools during this current year 1919-20, are experienced but are teaching in new 
positions, which data evidence all the more strongly the practices indicated through- 
out this discussion. 



STABILITY OF TEACHING FORCE OVER A THREE-YEAR PERIOD. 

The very great difficulty that superintendents experience in administering their 
schools from the standpoint of the instability of the teaching force is again well exem- 
plified in Table 42. These data were obtained from the directories covering a period 



56 



STATUS OF ETJEAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



of three years, issued by the county superintendents for the school years 1917, 1918, 
and 1919 from six different counties, typical of all sections of the State. In tracing a 
one-teacher school for a period of three years it was found (Division B) that only 15 
per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher schools taught the same school during this 
length of time. Forty-four per cent of these schools had one teacher for two years 
and one teacher for one year. The astonishing fact revealed by the data is that 41 
per cent of the one-teacher schools in these six counties, including every school, were 
taught by three different teachers during this period of three years. 

The second part of this table gives the infonnation concerning the two-teacher 
schools of the same coxmties. While a similar tendency seems to exist in these schools, 
we are glad to know that 31 per cent of these schools have had one teacher for a period 
of three years, and that only 26 per cent have been taught by three different teachers. 

Table 42. — Number of different teachers in one-teacher schools and two-teacher schools, 
over a period of three years, 1917, 1918, and 1919, in six typical counties. 

DIVISION A— DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS. 





One-teacher schools. 


Two-teacher schools. 


No. of county. 


Three 
different 
teachers. 


One 
teacher 

two years 
and one 
teacher 

one year. 


One 
teacher 

three 
years. 


Total. 


Three 
different 
teachers. 


One 
teacher 
two years 
and one 
teacher 
one year. 


One 
teacher 

three 
years. 


Total. 


1 


57 
.5o 

108 
03 
11 

152 


69 

58 
155 

57 
25 
123 


38 
14 
54 
4 
3 
.50 


164 
127 
317 
124 
39 
325 


17 
4 

23 
1 
7 

15 


21 
6 

54 
5 

8 
20 


12 
4 

41 
2 
5 

17 


50 


2. 


14 


3 


118 


4 


8 


6 


20 


6. 


52 








Total 


446 


4S7 


163 


1,096 


67 


114 


81 


262 







DIVISION B— DISTRIBUTION IN PER CENTS. 





One-teacher schools. 


Two-teacher schools. 


No. of county. 


Three 
different 
teachers. 


One 
teacher 
two years 
and one 
teacher 
one year. 


One 

teacher 

three 

years. 


Total. 


Three 
different 
teachers. 


One 
teacher 
two years 
and one 
teacher 
one year. 


One 
teacher 

three 
years. 


Total. 


1. 


35 
43 
34 
51 

28 
47 


42 
46 
49 
46 
64 
38 


23 
11 
17 
3 
8 
15 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


34 
29 
20 
13 
35 
29 


42 
42 
45 
62 
40 
38 


24 
29 
35 
25 
25 
33 


100 


2 


100 


3. 


100 


4 


100 


5 


100 


6 


100 






Total per cent 


41 


44 


15 


100 


26 


43 


31 


100 



Considerable variation, particularly in the case of the teachers in the one- teacher 
schools, will be observed in comparing the six counties. For instance, in county 1, 
Di\dsion B, the records show that 23 per cent of the one-teacher schools had the same 
teacher for three years, and 35 per cent of the schools had three different teachers. 
On the other hand, in county 4 only 3 per cent of the one- teacher schools have had 
the same teacher, and 51 per cent have had three teachers; or, expressed in numbers, 
as shown in Division A, four of the schools out of the 124 had the same teacher over 
a period of three years, and 63 schools had three different teachers. It should 



EXPERIENCE AND TENURE. 57 

be noted, however, that in county 4 a large proportion of the school districts have 
seven months school terms, a great many of the teachers hold provisional certificates, 
and the school boards as a rule pay their teachers the minimum salary. On the other 
hand, county 1 has a large number of school districts with eight months terms, and 
the teachers for the most part hold professional and permanent certificates and normal- 
school diplomas. County 3, with a State normal school located within its boundaries, 
represents what might be termed the average for the group, in that 17 per cent of the 
schools report one teacher for the three-year period and 34 per cent three different 
teachers. 

If these conditions, such as were found to exist in the six counties which we have 
just discussed, obtain over the entire State of Pennsylvania it would mean that 
among the 10,038 one-teacher schools there have been during the past three years, 
1917, 1918, and 1919, approximately — 

4, 100 schools with 3 different teachers. 

4, 400 schools with 1 teacher 2 years and 1 teacher 1 year. 

1, 500 schools with 1 teacher over the 3-year period. 



10. 000 



These facts should help to bring forcibly before the school authorities of the State 
the tremendous problem of teacher tenure or instability of the teaching force that 
county superintendents are constantly obliged to face. This study, as previously 
stated, will not discuss causes and possible remedies, but it does clearly point out 
the fact that something must speedily be done to solve this most unfortunate con- 
dition in the rural schools. 

NEW TEACHERS WITHOUT EXPERIENCE AND EXPERIENCED TEACHERS 

IN NEW POSITIONS. 

The county superintendents of 18 counties from all sections of the State indicated 
in their directories of teachers for the present school year, 1919-20, those teachers, 
both in the one-teacher and two-teacher schools, who are new, that is, without any 
experience, and those in a new position although experienced. These data are 
tabulated in Table 43, Division A, showing that 780, or 30 per cent, of the teachers 
in the one-teacher schools of these 18 counties totaling 2,640 are "beginners," without 
any previous experience, and that 977, or 37 per cent, of the teachers in the one- 
teacher schools, while experienced, are teaching in a new position. This means 
that 67 per cent of the one-teacher schools of these counties have a different teacher 
this year from last. 

In Division B of this same table the data are reported for the teachers in the two- 
teacher schools in 14 of these counties. These data are also obtained through the 
directories as furnished by the county superintendents. Of the 606 teachers in two- 
teacher schools, 71, or 12 per cent, are new teachers without any previous experience, 
and 197, or 33 per cent, of the 606 teachers, althoiigh experienced teachers, are in a 
new position. Since these two-teacher schools are located in the same counties as 
the one-teacher schools, it is interesting to note the marked difference between the 
one- teacher and two-teacher schools in regard to the percentage of new teachers with- 
out any previous experience. 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



Table 43. — Number and per cent of new teachers without experience and with erperienee 
in a new position in one-teacher schools and two-teacher schools in 18 counties. 



DIVISION A.— ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS. 



No. of county. 


One- 
teacher 
schools. 


New 
teachers 
without 
expe- 
rience. 


Teachers 
with ex- 
perience 
in new 
position. 


Per cent 
of new 

teachers 
without 
expe- 
rience. 


Per cent 
of teach- 
ers with 
expe- 
rience 
in new 
position. 


1 . 


223 
223 
219 
189 
128 
222 
170 

22 

55 
225 
155 
12,H 

96 
132 
108 
155 

72 
lis 


61 
55 
53 
68 
33 
59 
112 
5 
20 
47 
26 
50 
20 
50 
31 
48 
15 
27 


100 
80 

113 
70 
51 
91 
52 
12 
19 
67 
50 
59 
39 
37 
15 
60 
19 
53 


23 
24 
24 
36 
25 
^6 
66 
23 
36 
21 
17 
38 
20 
38 
29 
31 
21 
23 


45 


2 


36 


3 


51 


4 


37 


5 


40 


6 


41 


7 


31 


8 


54 


9 


35 


10 


30 


11 


32 


12 


46 


13 


41 


14 


28 


15 


14 


16 


39 


17 


as 


18 


45 






Total 


2, 610 


7S0 


977 


30 


37 







DIVISION B— TWO-TEACHER SCHOOLS. 



No. of county. 


Two- 
teacher 
schools. 


New 
teachers 
without 

expe- 
rience. 


Teachers 
with ex- 
perience 
in new 
position. 


Per cent 
of new 
teachers 
without 
expe- 
rience. 


Per cent 
of teach- 
ers with 
expe- 
rience 
in new 
position. 


1 


38 


5 


28 


13 


74 


2 




3 


40 


1 


215 


3 


65 


4 




,5 


60 
60 
110 


7 

4 

24 


18 
21 

40 


12 

7 
22 


30 


6 


35 


7 ... 


36 


^ 




9 


1 








10 


68 
24 
2S 
6 

52 
12 
88 
1 
16 


6 
1 
1 
2 
8 
3 
2 
1 
6 


10 

8 
6 
4 
14 


9 
4 
4 

33 
15 
25 
2 
25 
37 


14 


11 


33 


12 


21 


13 .. 


67 


14 


27 


15 ... . .... . . 




]fi 


11 

1 
10 


13 


17 


25 


IH 


63 






Total 


606 


71 


197 


12 


33 







The variation among the different countiea is quite marked, as indicated in the 
table, since the range in per cent of new teachers without experience in the one- 
teacher schools extends from 17 in county 11 to 66 in county 7, and in the case of 
experienced teachers in a new position from 14 in county 15 to 54 per cent in county 8. 
In the two-teacher schools the variation in per cents is practically as pronounced, 
namely, 2 in county 16 to 37 in county 18 in the case of the new teachers without 
experience, and 13 in county 16 to 67 in county 13 of the teachers with experience in 
a new position. While some of these counties show some extreme per cents, the large 
proportion center about the average per cents for the combined group found at the 
foot of each column, respectively, of Table 43. 



EXPEEIEITCE AHD TElsTUEE. 59 

If the percentages as found in these 18 typical counties hold true for the State as a 
whole, it would mean that among the 10,038 teachers in one-teacher £choola, 
approximately— 

3,000, or 30 per cent, are new teachers without previous experience; 
3,700, or 37 per cent, are experienced teachers in a new position; 
3,300, or 33 per cent, are teachers in the same position as last year. 



10,000, total. 

In comparing the per cent of new teachers in Pennsylvania this year with the avail- 
able data from other States, it appears that in Alabama in 1918 there were "17.6 per- 
cent rural and village teachers in their first year," ^^ in South Dakota "31.2 per cent 
of the rural teachers are teaching their first school," ^ in Virginia in 1918-19 "35.9 
per cent white teachers in one-teacher schools had no experience," ^^ and in New 
York "17 per cent of the teachers were on their first year's experience in 1918-19." ^ 

According to an unpublished investigation made by the bureau of certification and 
training of teachers in the State department of public instruction this number of 
3,000 new teachers without any previous experience in one-teacher schools is approxi- 
mately one-half of the entire number of the new teachers under county super"\dsion.^^ 
The figures as shown by the report are 5,162 "new teachers." However, as eight 
of the counties of the State are not included in the report, if the same percentage of 
new teachers should obtain in these missing counties, it would mean that for this year, 
1919-20, there are according to this State report approximately 6,200 "new teachers" 
among the entire number of 23,807 teachers under county supervision. This number 
of new teachers is considerably higher than the number of new teachers in 1917-18 
given in the annual report issued by the State superintendent of public instruction 
in 1918, in which it is reported that 4,044 teachers under county supervision had no 
pre^dous experien ce.-"* 

According to a study made in Pennsylvania in 1917 there were 4,697 new teachers 
needed in the schools under county supervision, of whom 2,876 were needed in the 
rural schools.'^ 

In the light of these facts it is evident that the demand for new teachers has greatly 
increased during the past few years,. When it is considered that approximately 
1,850 prospective teachers were graduated from the Pennsylvania State normal schools 
in 1919, of whom, according to the normal school principals,^" approximately 15 per 
cent, or 275, entered one-teacher rural schools to meet the demand for approximately 
3,000 new teachers alone, not to mention the 6,000 needed in all schools under 
county supervision, some estimate can be fonned of the great teacher emergency in 
Pennsylvania. Many additional training facilities, as well as the enlarged use of 
those now in existence, must be provided or the schools, if they are to be continued, 
will be filled necessarily "with an inadequate and poorly trained teaching force through 
lowered standards of admission. 

11 An Educational Study of Alabama. V. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1919, No. 41, p. 349. 
^ Educ. System of S. Dak. U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 210. 
1= Va. Pub. Sell. Survey, p. 333. 

9 EngeLliardt. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. 

13 Unpublished report of the Teacher Shortage by the Bureau of Certification and Training of Teachers, 
Dept. of Pub. Instruction for Pennsylvania. 
i< Rep. State Supt. Pub. Instruction, Harrisburg, 1918, p. 611. 

15 Harbold, P. M. Proc. Principals of Pa. State Normal Schools, 1917, p. 24. 

16 Replies to a questionnaire sent to State normal-school principals of Pennsylvania. 



Chapter VII. 
SALARIES. . 



The salaries received by teachers in the one-teacher schools in Pennsylvania vary 
greatly, both in respect to those paid to teachers in schools other than one-teacher 
schools of the same county and in respect to those paid teachers in the same type of 
schools but in different counties. In addition to the data on salaries secured directly 
from the teachers of the 18 counties covered by the questionnaire for the year 1917-18, 
information was obtained from 15 county superintendents regarding the salaries paid 
to all the teachers under their supervision in 1918-19. These facts have been worked 
up in the following tables and diagrams. The data taken from the official directories 
comprising the salaries of all the teachers in the one-teacher schools of the respective 
counties for the school year 1918-19 are complete and accurate, inasmuch as they are 
made up from the annual reports submitted to the county superintendents by the 
secretaries of the school boards of the various school districts. In each case the salary 
is the total amount received by the teachfer during the school year, irrespective of the 
length of texva, which, in Pennsylvania, varies from 7 to 10 months.^ 

ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS IN TOWNSHIPS. 

The salaries of the teachers in the one-teacher schools in the 15 counties repre- 
sented by 2,368 cases, as shown in Table 44, diAdsion A, range from $315 to $800, a 
difference of $485 between the amounts paid the lowest and highest salaried teachers. 

The median salary of this group is $411, which means that 1,184 teachers, or half 
the number, receive less than this amount for the school year. Interpreting this 
salary by months, it represents an amount equal either to $54 on the basis of the 
average school year for townships of 7.6 months (Table 46),^ or to $34.25 on the basis 
of the calendar year. The middle 50 per cent receive a salary ranging from $383 
to $478, with a quartile de\'iation of $47.50, which fact indicates a close grouping of the 
salaries about the mid -point. 

1 Since these data on salaries were gathered and tabulated the Pennsylvania Legislature, in June, 1919, 
passed what is known as the "Woodruff salary bill." Through this measure the salaries of all teachers 
who received less than $100 per school month were increased 25 per cent in 1919-20, those receiving $100 and 
not more than $150 were increased 20 per cent, etc. Since this law was interpreted to affect the teaching 
position, and since practically all the teachers in the rural schools received less than $100 per month in 
1918-19, as will be shown in this study, for practical purposes it is therefore safe to add 25 per cent to the 
amount of salary herein set forth, to determine the salaries paid during the current school year 1919-20. 
Pa. Sch. Law, and app., 1919, Art. XII, sec. 1210. 

2 See p. 66. 

60 



SALARIES. 



61 



Me- 
dian 
sal- 
aries. 


$414 
420 
378 
494 
425 
500 
409 
400 
396 
500 
444 
388 
385 
393 
406 


^ 


^t 


(N(N(M.H (MrHrH ,_| ^ ^ rt M 


of 


a 


§00 

^ a 




































s 
^ 





































9© 
























i'^ 






^ 






































1 












•« 






'cq lO 








CT. 


10 




































1 


■^ 












CO 




llOrH 






s 


t2 








■IM 


•CO 






'<N 










1> 


1 








]co 


cs 


















>o 


^ 
g 








'00 





'-' 


'000 








a> 

IN 


1 












C) —1 




CD 










03 










:S5 


OirH r-l 


co-^ 








T)< 


i 


■-(lO 


IM 


lO 


^ 


ODti 






'-* 


00 


10 


OJ 




OOIMOCO 
rt (M 




t-.-l<N 

rH tH 




<^ 


00 


i 




00 


01 •* ^(N^(M t^(M 




^ ; 


3 




05(000 
CO CO --H -^ 


C^Ot^MMCOiHC^OO-* 


C<1 




t^ CO 

coo 


OJINIM 0<N 

f-l .-1 COIM 


CD CO ■»*^ CD ^ "*t 

t-H t^ 


g 


10 




Tjl CO 00 ■* 0> rH 


(N coco 

CS) 




CO CD 


s 






lOOIMW <N<M-t CO^ C^ 


^ 

? 


10 


0-rt<OOCOW(N»Ot^05 
"OTh 10 (N (M 


rH .-H i-H .-( 00 
.-ICOtN (MCO 


CO 


1 


»^|--00<NCOOJOCO 


CM lOOON rt 
C^IN CD 


CO 
CM 


10 

IS 














(N 'Ji 












Oi 


00 







^ CO 






S2S _ 


"?3^g2 


« 

c^ 






>> 

"3 
g 



d 

iz; 




IM 


CO 


•^ 


"3 


U3 


t~ 


00 


a> 




r-t 




(N 


o: 




1-H 


^ 





73438°— 22- 



62 



STATUS OF RUEAL TEACHER IIST PENNSYLVANIA. 



02 

►4 
O 
O 

w 

o 

W 
o 

<1 
w 

6 

12; 
W 

« 

o 

Q 

<J 
o 

EH 

I 

n 

;?; 
o 

> 
5 



$461 
490 
392 
577 
500 
556 
488 
517 
450 
599 
649 
699 
450 
438 
458 




OS 

1— 1 

■15 


1 


OC .-1 U3 t^ —1 00 l^C-<-<a3CO ■* 


CO 
OS 
















(N 


iNoira 








lO 




















O "^ 










_< 


<N 




•* 




















-S" 






















CO 










CO 








"* 


CO 


'^ 


oc >Oiltl 








CO 
CO 






















00 •* 








2 


1-H 




>n 


N 


^ 


t^oo ui 








OS 








m 












o--" 








§ 








>ra 


CD 






OS OS CO 
















ira 


CO 


^^;*?3" 








S3 




^^^^o^^ 


n^ 






CO 










CO T-r ■<*< 


t~ 


ooo 










5 


TOO 






^ 


C^ (M CO lO 






CO 


s 






■X" t^rH^ 


t~(M00O0.H ^ 






o 




^ 


OOIM t-rHOO(N 
CO 


t~ 






in 


00 


C0-ai50l3iN>O<N^'*O>0>'<t<'-<<NC^ 


03 


(N CO 


(M 




COINNCD 




'^ 


Td 


g 




N-*<N 


"O 


COCO 


COrt JN 




^ 






rt<DCO 


lOf-li-l ■* 


s? 


r^coc^c^ 




-Hcq 




■^ 




- 


o 
to 






t^M 












^N rM 


-^ 


r^ 
















'^ 
















'^ 






OJ 










CO 




.H 


-' 




-«< 




Cv 


C 


■* 


u- 


CC 


t* 


oc 


o 


c 


tH 


!^ 


c^ 


■<t 






"ci 
O 
Eh 





C-l 


T3 oT 




<D tJO 




^ s 






+:< c8 




!;?« 




3 .. 


^ 


o-o 




w fl 




f- o 




Tf -r^ 



CO ^ 

r-T W- 
t « 

lO di 



CO 



g CO 

es as 

Di CO 

Pi '^ 

2 M 

> cr 

ft -S 

o ^ 

^o .^ 

CI '"' 

CS r— I 

T CO 



^^f 



:a .2 



a> 

® c« 

CO 

00 o 

CO CO 

€©■ CO 



O) 



€©■ 



xi, s ^ 

^'•^ ^ 

£P <»^ CT- 

. CO lO 

_> Tt< €» 

£. c3 P 

.^ ^ a* 



cS 



SALARIES. 6S 

Now, turning from the study of the group of counties as a whole, wide differences in 
salaries paid in the individual counties are noticeable. The median salaries of 8 
different counties are lower than the group median, 1411; coifnty 3, with a median of 
$378, falls as far as $33 below that of the entire group. Its range extends from $315 to 
1485, this latter amount being only $7 higher than the third quartile (the 75 per cent 
point) for the entire group. County 13, while having the same low range as county 3, 
$315-$485, has, however, a better distribution in salaries, evidenced by its median 
falling on a higher point on the scale, namely, $385. 

In contrast with these counties ranldng low in salaries as compared with the stand- 
ards for the group as a whole, is county 10, which has a median salary of $500. The 
salaries of one-half the teachers of this county are greater by $22, or more than the 
amount representing the 75 per centile, $47 8 ^ of the composite group. County 6 
likewise has a median salary of $500, which is $122 higher than the mid -point of county 

ONE-TEACHER RURAL SCHOOLS— TOWNSHIPS. 

«*" V////////////////////A 

TWO AND MORE THAN TWO TEACHER SCHOOLS— TOWNSHIPS 

519 V////////////////////////\ 

RURAL SCHOOLS— COMBINED. 

440 V///////////////////A 

BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

588 Y7y////////////////////////777A 

RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS— TOWNSHIPS. 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS— BOROUGHS. 

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ENTIRE STATE (Including 
cities). 3 



Diagram 5. — Distribution of median salaries of elementary and secondary teachers in 1918-19 in the 
difEerent types of schools in Pennsylvania. 

3, $378, the lowest with respect to salary of all the counties reporting, and $89 higher 
than the median salary for the entire group, thus indicating an astonishingly wide 
range in median salaries. 

SCHOOLS OF TWO AND MORE THAN TWO TEACHERS IN TOWNSHIPS. 

In order to show the true situation concerning the salaries paid teachers in the 
one-teacher schools in the open country, and to understand more thoroughly the causes 
for these existing conditions, it seems advisable to look into the salary situation in 
the schools of two and more than two teachers in townships. Table 44, Division B, 
indicates the salaries of the 933 teachers in these schools in the same 15 counties 
used in the previous division. The median salary for these teachers is $519; the range 
extends from $315 to $1,300; the middle 50 per cent from $460 to $630, with a quar- 
tile deviation of $85, which is almost twice as great as the deviation in salaries of 
teachers in. the one-teacher schools, thus indicating a much wider distribution of 
salaries about the point of central tendency. In comparing the median salaries of 
the teachers in one-teacher schools. Division A, with the median salaries of those 

3 Statistics of State School Systems, 1917-18, Bonner H. R., U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui. 1920, No. 11, P. 42. 



64 STATUS OF RUEAL, TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

in two and more than two-teacher schools, Division B, of the same individual counties, 
it will be observed that the extent of difference in salaries in the two types of schools 
is most pronounced, ranging from $311 in county 12 to $14 in county 3. The average 
difference for the entire group of 15 counties is $91. 

It should be especially emphasized that the median salary, which for practical 
purposes is approximately the same as the arithmetical average, is, in the case of 
the teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers, $108 higher than that 
of the one-teacher schools in the same townships of the respective counties. Such 
conditions exist in spite of the fact that these two types of schools are frequently 
found in townships controlled by the same board of directors, in whose hands lies 
the power of determining the amount of salary paid the teachers. Upon investi- 
gating some of the individual school districts in these counties, the writer finds that 
in the same townships teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers are 
receiving as high as $20 more monthly salary than teachers with practically the same 
qualifications and in many cases an equal amount of experience in the one-teacher 
schools. In other words, teachers are frequently transferred by the school boards 
from a one-teacher school to a more centralized \'lllage school of two or more than 
two teachers in the same district, not only being paid a larger salary, but in many 
cases given a janitor besides. These facts may help to explain the difficulties that 
county superintendents have to face in stabilizing their teaching force, and that 
school boards in their shortsightedness bring upon themselves in securing teachers 
to fill the vacancies in these one-teacher schools. 

The grand total distribution of the salaries paid the 3,301 teachers, including all 
schools of the townships for the 15 counties combined, will be found in Division C, 
Table 44. The median salary for this combined group of township elementary 
teachers is $449, and the first and third quartiles, $393 and $508, respectively, with 
a quartile deviation of $57. 

BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

The data relating to salaries in boroughs help to throw further light on the salary 
situation of the one-teacher schools. The median salary of the 1,205 borough elemen- 
tary teachers as found in Table 45 is $588. At a glance one may see that this amount 
is $139 higher than the median salary ($449) paid to the teachers in the combined 
group of schools in townships in the same counties, and $177 higher than the median 
salary ($411) paid to teachers in the one-teacher schools in the open country. 



SALARIES. 



65 



Me- 
dian 

sal- 
aries. 




MOooiot^TxooiOJTtioocqc 

ICOOOOOOOQOO-^lOOOi-Hri^T 
5cD"D^»0*OlO<OCO'OiO^" 


1 1 


"3 
in 


s3gK|2ggg3'"S^SSS? 


lO 

2 § 


o q3 


cq 




1'^ 










icocs 






i 00 


i 


(M 




i'^ 










Ith T)< ^ 




i OJ 


o 


T-H 




;^ 


•IM 


;^ 


'<MCD"-I 




■* 


lO 


i-((M 


•CO 










;^-* 






• CO 

'■ 


1 


-*rH 


'" 


'<M 


■"^ 


• coo T-H 




CO 




(M .-1 


tH 










IM 00 






i t- 


1 


(N IM 


t- 


COIM w 


WOOrt 


;'■ 


:§ 


to 


I— ( 


(M w^ CO 00 


IM CSCO r-i ■ -t 


s 


o 


(M 




1> 




•^ 




00 lO 




•.'■ 


55 


s 

s 


32-*S 


^2S 


05t~(MIM10C 


00 
50 


1 


t~,-H .-( O 


CD'-t 




lOtO 


^ 1^ 


§ 


9« 


(M0100-*CO(MTt<-* 

r-<-*,-l,-lrtCO.-l^ 


■* 0> O lO cocc 

i-H i-H T-C CO 


i 


1 


TtH.-( t^-:f< 


lO CT) »0 


CO 


rt (M .CO 


to 




i-H CO(MM 


S"2 


■H T-I 00 CO rH CO 


s 


o 
o 


TOCO 


CO IM lO t^ IM lO 
(M 


o rHi-i ia 


00 




(NTtKNM 




^o 


■^ 


Ol lO-^ IU3 


§ 


1 














■* rH 




CO ^ CO t-H CO 


CO 




rH 










COiM 








CO 'CO 


;:^ 


§ 


to rt (N 






rHCO 






-ICO •■ra 


CO 


















^ 










•CO 


Tjl 








N 






'"' 












'.'" 


■* 


(M 


































O 






(N 
















"^ ; 


■ l-i 


Tt( 


3 
o 
o 

o 

i 




CS 


CO 


-Id 


O 


to 


l> 


00 


Oi 


o 

T-l 




CO 




■^ lO 


"a 

■s 

Eh 





66 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



LENGTH OF SCHOOL TERM IN TOWNSHIPS AND BOROUGHS. 

The length of the school term is undoubtedly a determining factor in explaining the 
marked variations in teachers ' salaries prevalent in the counties throughout the State. 
Table 46, Divisions A and B, indicate in months the length of school terms in town- 
ships and boroughs of the 15 counties previously discussed in this chapter according 
to the 1918 report of the State superintendent of public instruction for Pennsylvania.* 
There are 629 school districts in these 15 counties,, of which 403, or 64 per cent, are 
townships and the remaining 226, or 36 per cent, are boroughs. It will be noticed 
that the average length of term in townships is 7.6 months, while that in the boroughs 
is 8.6. Fifty -eight per cent, or over half, of the townships have a school term of 
7 months, the minimum requirement by law, while only 11 per cent of the boroughs 
limit their terms to this minimum standard. On the other hand, it is interesting to 
note that almost the reverse is true in the case of the 9 months' term, namely, 53 per 
cent in boroughs, and 14 per cent in townships. In the case of the 8 months' term, 
townships and boroughs show no appreciable difference. 

Table 46. — Length of school terms in months in townships and boroughs of 15 counties 

in 1918. 

DIVISION A— TOWNSHIPS. 1 





Months. 


Counties. 


Total. 


Per 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


in 


11 


12 


13 


14 


1.5 


cent. 


7 


27 
1 


32 
9 


28 
8 
1 


3 

n 

17 


3 
3 


5 
33 
17 


16 
4 
2 


17 
3 
2 


2 
5 


9 
4 
3 


8 
12 
14 

7 


13 
4 
3 
1 


21 


13 
6 


35 
1 


232 

104 

59 

8 


58 


8 


26 


9 


14 


10. - 












2 




Total 
































28 


41 


37 


31 


6 


55 


22 


22 


7 


16 


41 


21 


21 


19 


36 


403 


100 









DIVISION B.— BOROUGHS.2 





Months. 


Ck)unties. 


Total. 


Per 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


cent. 


7 


2 
8 
6 


3 
5 
14 
2 


7 
4 
9 








1 
6 
4 


2 
4 
12 








2 
1 
9 


3 
4 
2 


"5" 


4 
22 
10 


24 
62 
120 
20 


11 


8 


1 
16 
5 


1 
1 


5 
11 
1 


.... 


1 
6 
3 


'14' 
9 


27 


9 


53 


10 


9 




Total 




















16 


24 


20 


22 


2 


17 


11 


18 


1 


10 


23 


12 


9 


5 


36 


226 


100 



' .\ritliinetical average of terms, 7.6 months. 
2 Arithmetical average of terms, 8. 6 months. 

When the practice in individual counties is considered , it is apparent that there is very 
great variation in the length of school terms among the townships and boroughs. In 
counties 1 and 13 all the townships have a 7 months' term, with the exception of one 
township found in county 1, while 20 out of 25 boroughs in these same counties have 
8 or 9 months' terms, which facts show that the townships, with 98 per cent main- 
taining a 7 months' minimum term, in comparison with the boroughs are being very 
much handicapped educationally by their shorter school terms. On the other hand, 
counties 6 and 11 have 76 out of 96 township districts with 8 or 9 months' terms, with 
county 11 having as many as 7 townships maintaining a school term of 10 months. 

* Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, 1918, pp. 372-601. 



SALARIES. 67 

The practice in these townships, in comparison with the boroughs of the same coun- 
ties, shows that the length of school term is relatively the same. This practice is a 
commendable feature in the management of the schools on the part of the school 
l^oards of these townships, inasmuch as it affords educational opportunity equal to 
that offered in the boroughs. 

In the light of these facts it will now be seen what bearing the variation in the average 
length of schooj term has on the salary paid the teachers in the different types of 
schools. By considering the average school term for townships as 7.6 months, and 
the yearly salary as either $411, the median salary for the teachers in one-teacher 
schools (Table 44, Division A), or |519, the median salary for the teachers in the school 



One-teacher schools.' 
[State as a whole.' 

$519 ^!!^!}M^v^m^^^\^w^\^v^^^ Two-teacher schools.^ 
$702 y/ /////A'^//////y/////////////////// ////y/////:^^ state as a whole.* 



S445 H^B^^^^^^iH One-teacher schools.^ 
$562 V/////////y////m//////////////////m State as a whole.' 

HEW YOBE 

$600 t^^\\\\\\\\\\\V\\^\\V;y^^ Two-teacher schools. 

$976 W//////////////////////////////////////////y^^^^^^^^ State as a whole.'' 

ONTTED STATES 

$635 W^///y////////V///Ayy////Zr:7^ U. S. as a whole.' 

Diagram 6. — Median teachers' salaries in Pennsylvania in one-teacher schools, in two-teacher schools, 
and in the State as a whole in 1918-19, compared with a typical Eastern, Southern, and Western State 
and United States. 

of two and more than two teachers (Table 44, Division B), it will be found that the 
average monthly salary is, in the first case, $54, and in the second, $68. Taking the 
median salary as $449 for the entire group of teachers in townships (Table 44, Division 
C), and di\'iding by 7.6, the average number of months in the school term, it shows a 
monthly salary of $59. However, if we consider 8.6 months the average length of 
term for boroughs, and the median borough salary as $588 (Table 45), it will be seen 
that the average monthly salary is $68. 

The above facts show that the average monthly salary in boroughs is $9 higher 
than the average salary received by the combined group of elementary teachers in 
townships. The average monthly salary for the teachers in schools of two and more 
than two teachers in townships is $68, exactly the same as the average monthly salary 
for the boroughs, which means that the higher salaries paid to teachers in boroughs, 
as compared with the schools of two and more than two teachers in the townships, are 
due apparently to the longer school term rather than the larger monthly salary. 

5 Va. Pub. Sch. Survey, pp. 142, 337. 

6 See p. 62. 

'Bonner, H. R. Statistics of State Sch. Systems , 1917-lS, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui. 1920, No. 11, p. 114. 
8Thc Rural Teacher of Nebraslra. U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui. 1919, No. 20, p 53. 
'Engelhardt, F. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. 



68 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

However, the significant fact in all of this is that the teachers in one-teacher rural 
schools in these 15 counties receive on an average $14 per school month less than the 
teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers in the same townships, have 
the same length of school term, and are controlled by the same boards of education. 
There seems to be no logical reason why teachers of practically the same training and 
experience in one-teacher rural schools should receive less salary than those in schools 
of two or more than two teachers, and since the facts show that this difference does 
exist to such an extent as to average $14 per month, not to mention the extreme 
differences at the ujiper and lower ends of the range, it certainly does give a tremendous 
argument in favor of an extra State "bonus" to these teachers. This principle was 
recognized in the recent Woodruff salary bill providing an extra State bonus of $5 
per month to rural teachers, but we can not see any reason why this small amount 
should be considered at all adequate to meet the situation in Pennsylvania, provided 
the bonus scheme is decided upon as the best plan to solve this, one of the most 
difficult phases of the rural school problem. 

The evidence so far cited seems to warrant the conclusion that one of the main 
factors in explaining variations in annual salary in counties is the difference in length 
of school terms in townships and boroughs. From this pronounced difference between 
townships and boroughs, and from the added fact that school boards in these town- 
ships and boroughs usually pay only the minimum salaries, teachers would natm'ally be 
drawn, on economic grounds alone, if on no other, from the rural one-teacher schools 
to the schools of two and more than two teachers in townships paying higher salaries, 
and of course to borough elementary schools with the longer school terms. 

It is also a noteworthy fact that many boroughs have a small number of teachers, 
consisting in some of the counties of 1, 2, and 3 teachers, and in two of the counties 
listed in Table 46 the boroughs have an average of 4 teachers for the entire county. 
Certainly a situation, for example, in which 9 teachers in a township receive a min- 
imum salary of $45 or $50 per month for a 7 months' term, when in the same town- 
ship there is located a small borough of 1, 2, or 3 teachers receiving a minimum salary 
of $55 or $60 with an 8 months' term, to say the least is not conducive to the main- 
taining of a stable teaching force or the improving of the status of the teacher in the 
one- teacher schools of such a township. 

One might well ask the question whether some form of county local imit of more 
centralized school control would not help to solve these problems directly affecting 
the rural teachers, in which the county superintendent and county board of educa- 
tion would have more power in maintaining more uniform salary schedules and a 
more equitable school term. 

SALARY IN RELATION TO CERTIFICATES. 

Since it was shown in the previous chapter that the types of certificates held gen- 
erally by teachers in the one-teacher rural schools in Pennsylvania are provisional, 
professional, permanent, and State normal certificates or diplomas, we shall now see 
how salaries in 1918, as reported through the questionnaires, are distributed on this 
basis. In the accompanying Table 47, the salaries of 1,383 teachers from 18 counties 
of the State are distributed according to the type of certificates held. Of this total 
number reporting, 47 per cent hold provisional certificates, 22 per cent professional, 
13 per cent permanent, and 18 per cent State normal certificates or diplomas, which 
percentages correspond quite closely with the percentages of certificates held by the 
teachers in 28 counties of the State as reported in Chapter V, 



SALARIES. 



69 



Table 47. — Salaries paid to teach;rs in one-teacher schools according to certificates held. 



Certificates. 


$300- 
?324 


$325- 
$349 


$3.50- 
$374 


$375- 
$399 


$400- 
$424 


$425- 
."449 


$450- 

$474 


$475- 
$499 




354 


10 


80 


50 
1S2 


79 
38 
113 

85 


39 

42 

6 

30 


IS 
9 
8 

19 


14 




24 










31 


Normal certificates and dlplo 










36 


42 












Total 


354 


10 


80 


248 


315 


117 


54 


111 






Certificates. 


$500- 

$524 


$255- 

$549 


$550- 

$574 


$575- 
$509 


$600- 
$649 


8650- 

$700 


Total. 


Per 

cent. 


Median 

salaries. 




2 
3 

8 

6 


1 

13 
13 

11 


1 

5 
5 

9 








648 
299 
189 

247 


47 
22 
13 

18 


$323 


Professional 


2 
1 

- 5 


1 
3 

3 


i" 

1 


398 




421 


Normal certificates and di- 
plomas 


427 


Total 


19 


38 


20 


8 


7 


2 


1,383 


100 


400 







By studying this table one can see that over 50 per cent of the teachers holding 
provisional certificates receive a salary of |315, the minimum legal salary for a seven- 
months' school term in 1918.^" The second largest number in the group holding pro- 
visional certificates receive a salary of $360, which amount is the minimum monthly 
salary of |45 required by law, for an 8 months' term. Practically 75 per cent of the 
number of teachers who reported holding provisional certificates receive a minimum 
salary of $45 per month for a 7 or 8 months' school term. 

In the case of teachers holding professional and permanent certificates, more than 
half the number receive |385 and $420, respectively — again the minimum monthly 
salaries of $55 and $60 required by law for these types of certificates in 1918 for a 7 
months' term." It is also noteworthy that the second largest number of teachers in 
each of these groups receive the minimum salaries for an 8 months' term, $440 and 
$480, respectively. The quartile deviation of both groups holding professional and 
permanent certificates is very small, indicating a close distribution about the medians 
which are the legal minimum salaries. 

The range of salaries for teachers holding normal-school certificates or diplomas is 
very much greater than for those holding provisional, professional, and permanent 
certificates, namely, $385 to $700; however, the median salary for this group is only 
$427, just $6 more than the median salary for the teachers holding permanent certifi- 
cates, and $29 higher than the median for those holding professional certificates. 
This can probably be explained from the fact that the minimum salary by law in 1918 
for a normal-school graduate with less than two years' experience was $55, the same 
as that paid to a teacher holding a professional certificate, and $60 for a normal-school 
graduate of two or more years' experience, the same amount received by a teacher 
holding a permanent certificate .^^ Thus, it can be seen that nearly 60 per cent of the 
teachers holding normal certificates and diplomas receive the minimum salary of $385 
and $420 for a seven months' term, and that 30 per cent of the group receive $440 and 
$480, the minimum salary, for an eight months' term. 

The above facts clearly show that, in the case of each of the four types of certificates, 
over 50 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools receive minimum 
salaries for a seven months' term, and that approximately 80 per cent of all the teachers 
reporting receive the minimum amount required by law, either for a seven or an eight 
months' term. One would naturally expect that a great many teachers holding tha 
lower class of certificates requiring practically no professional training would receive 
the minimum salary, but to discover that as many as 78 per cent of the teachers pro- 
fessionally trained, holding State normal certificates or diplomas, are receiving the 
minimum monthly salary of $55 or $60 is startling evidence against the unfortunate 

i» Pa. Schl. Laws, and app., 1919, Art. XII, sec. 1210, part 4. 

u Ibid. 

12 Sch. Laws of Pa., 1917, Art. XII. sec. 1210. 



70 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



practice of school boards in their nonrecognition of professional training by their per- 
sistence in paying these teachers only the minimum amount required by law. These 
facts alone show that the minimum-salary law is probably the most potent factor in 
determining salaries in the rural districts. 

The same facts and tendencies prevalent among the combined group of counties 
which we have just discussed are probably even better illustrated in the accompanying 
Table 48, showing how salaries are distributed according to certificates in four typical 
counties. It is not the purpose of the writer to analyze the salaries paid teachers in 
these counties and the causes for the same, but merely to indicate, by using the four 
typical counties, the wide variations that exist in the number and kinds of certificates 
held by the teachers, together with their accompanying salaries. In counties 1 and 2 
a large majority of the townships have a minimum school term of seven months, while 
in counties 3 and 4 more than one-half have eight and nine months' terms (Table 46). 
The same general practice of paying the minimum salary required by law, previously 
shown as prevailing among the counties as a whole, is even more apparent in each of 
these individual counties. 

Table 48. — Salaries paid to teachers in one-teacher schools according to certificates held 

(Four typical counties.) 
COUNTY 1. 



Certificates. 


$300- 
$324. 


$325- 
$349. 


$3.50- 
$374. 


$37^ 
$399. 


$400- 
$424. 


$42.5- 
$449. 


$450- U75- 
$474. ;$499. 


$500- 
$524. 


$525- 
$549. 


$550- 
$574. 


$575- 
$599. 


$600- 
$624. 


$625- 
$649. 


To- 
tal. 




.... 47 




2 


3 
26 






















52 




2 
16 

6 
24 




















28 


























16 


Normal certificate 


orj 






3 

32 




1 
1 
















10 




1 47 -- 


2 


















Total.. 






106 

































COUNTY 2. 


















36 




10 


3 
30 


















49 




6 
19 

5 


..... 


1 


..... 


1 








38 


















21 


Normal certificate or 








3 
36 












8 




36 




10 


1 1 


1 













Total . 




30 


1 


116 

























COUNTY 3. 




















30 


2 


12 


5 

20 



10 

7 

6 


1 
2 
5 

4 


I 
3 
4 

1 
9 


1 
3 
2 

2 

8 


1 
1 












ei9. 




2 

1 










40 










1 
1 








9\ 


Normal certificate or 








6 








?.?. 




30 


2 


12 










Total 


31 


32 


12 


4 


3 


2 








145 























COUNTY 4. 




















1 


2 


10 


4 


2 


10 

8 


1 


3 
6 

9 

32 






2 
..... 

5 








35 




7 


2 
2 

1 


1 
2 






17 














1 




15 


Normal certificate or 








1 




13 


6 

7 


67 
















Total 


1 


2 


10 


5 


2 


31 


50 


7 


5 


10 


3 


1 




1.34 







Teachers from one-teacher rural schools with higher certificates migrate to schools 
of two and more than two teachers in townships, and to borough elementary schools to 
get increased salaries, causing vacancies in the rural schools which must be filled by 
county superintendents issuing temporary provisional certificates to a constantly 
changing corps of new inexperienced teachers. There are, of course, some rural school 
districts which provide for a longer school term or fix their salary schedule so that they 
can attract teachers with better academic and professional training; but these, as the 
facts indicate, are very much in the minority. 

• It might be in order to note here that in the questionnaire sent out to the teachers, 
they were asked to state the salary that they had received the previous year, as well as 



SALARIES. 



71 



the present salary. In tabulating these results it appeared that, whenever salaries 
were increased, it was generally due to the minimum-salary law which went into effect 
in 1918, and the amount of increase was usually the minimum $5 or |10 per month 
increase required by law, depending on the type of certificate held. 

BASES ON WHICH SCHOOL BOARDS RAISE SALARIES. 

The factors and conditions which are taken into account by school boards as bases in 
determining increases in salary, according to the replies given by the teachers in the 
questionnaires, are listed in Table 49. Upon tabulating these different answers and 
omitting "no basis," fourth on the list, it is found that there are 57 different bases 
named. 



Table 49. — Bases on which school boards increase salaries as given by the teachers- 
distribution, followed by 8 typical counties. 



-Total 



Bases for increased salaries. 


Total 

18 
coun- 
ties. 


Typical counties. 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




337 
96 
91 
43 
-10 
30 
29 
25 
19 
18 
14 
13 
12 
8 
7 
6 
6 
6 
6 

' 6 
5 
5 
5 
5 
4 
6 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


40 
6 

"'""i" 

"""3' 
...... 


51 
5 
3 

...... 

1 
2 
1 

1 
3 
2 


8 
2 


26 
10 

8 
1 


24 
2 
4 
1 


68 
21 
21 
3 


13 
1 

""'i' 


17 






5 

1 




Certificate '. 


Legislatvire (when State raises it) 


1 
...... 


6 
1 












...... 

13 
3 


3 

4 
2 
2 
8 
1 
8 


3 


11 
2 
3 
2 




Experience and certificate 


When compelled 1 






Efficiency and certificate 






Professional trainins; 








...... 


11 
1 


E xperience and efficiency 






2 






Salaries are not raised 








1 


S5 per month 






5 






Amount of work done 










5 






Change of school 








5 








E ducation 








5 








State appropriation 








2 






$25 a year 


'""i' 


1 

1 


1 




1 




High cost of living — clothing 


i 






1 




$1 per month each year after fifth 










Protest of teachers 




4 
2 


1 










Scarcity of teachers 


1 












$25 every two years 












After 2 years $5 per month 




1 








1 
2 






First year experience, later law 






1 






Limit 








1 






Number of pupils 












1 




S25 a vear until S65 








1 








War Basis 




2 






1 
1 

2 






Yearly 








2 




Absolute necessity 














After two vears 






1 




2 
2 
1 






After visiting five schools 




1 








After 2 years $10 per month 












After 2 vears S25 year until maximum 










1 
1 
1 






Experience (one case favoritism) 
















To prevent teachers going to towns 






















1 
1 




1 






Because I earned it 












Custom 








1 








EquaUzation of salaries 






1 






















1 




Education and experience 








1 








Income 








1 








If satisfactory , after first year 










1 












1 










Money m treasury 












1 














1 






Personal persuasion 






1 










Raised twice after obtaining professional cer- 
flcate 










1 
















1 






State legislature and taxation 














1 


To secure and retain good teachers 












1 
1 






$2.50 per month until 5 years 
















Three times in 10 years 














1 


When a teacher less is needed 










1 








Total number of replies 


913 


53 


76 


33 


61 


66 


163 


26 


57 







72 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

t 

Since the teachers were asked in the (questionnaires not to name the district in which 
they taught, there is no way of telling the number of school boards that are represented 
in the 913 replies. However, since approximately two-thirds of the teachers in the 
one-teacher schools in the townships of the 18 counties answered, and since they 
undoubtedly came from all sections of the counties, we are probably safe in assmning 
that a large proportion of the school districts of each of the 18 counties is represented. 
Inasmuch as the average mumber of township school districts for these counties is 27, 
it would seem safe to estimate on two-thirds this number or 18, thus giving replies 
representative of the practice of 224 different school boards throughout the 18 counties. 

The data in this table show that 36 per cent of the replies gave as a basis the "mini- 
mum salaiy law, " and that approximately 10 per cent additional replies include such 
as "legislature, " "certificate, '' "when State raises it, " etc., making a total of 46 per 
cent of the replies which refer directly or indirectly to the minimum salary law. 

Analyzing further the factors and conditions that school boards consider in increasing 
salaries, one is surprised to find that "efficiency" and "experience," factors which 
would naturally be expected to receive more frequent consideration, were each 
named in only 10 per cent of the replies. A number of the bases were given in com- 
bination, such as "experience and certificate," "State legislature and taxation," 
"experience and efficiency," etc. As a separation of these combinations into their 
constituent parts would be merely a matter of opinion, it may be well to consider them 
jointly as listed. 

Those who may look for unique replies in data of this kind find them in such ex- 
pressions as "personal persuasion, " "when a teacher less is needed, " "$1 per month 
each year after the fifth, " "one case favoritism, " "whim of directors, " "after visiting 
five schools, " etc. 

It is of unusual interest to observe that "professional training" was named only 13 
times, "education" 6 times, and the "high cost of living" 4 times. The latter fact is 
most unusual since the high cost of living has been one of the strongest arguments 
presented to school boards for increasing salaries. 

Approximately 5 per cent of the teachers reported that their boards have no oasis 
for increasing salaries, and 3 per cent admit frankly they "do not know. " It should 
also [be remembered that only 65 per cent of all the teachers who filled out the 
questionnaire answered the question which called for this information. Might this 
not indicate that a large proportion of teachers have no knowledge of the kind of con- 
sideration their school boards give the question of salaries, one of the most important 
factors in their social, economic, and professional welfare? It is not the purpose to 
offer these data on increasing salaries as necessarily conclusive evidence; but the 
material may be of importance from the standpoint of the many different kinds of 
reasons given, and from the fact that it helps to substantiate the pre\dous conclusions 
concerning minimum salaries. 

The discussion of this table thus far has been based on the distribution of the total 
niunber of replies as found in the first column of Table 50. Columns 1, 2, 3, etc., just 
following the total column, show the distribution of replies in typical counties. It 
will be observed that there is about the same number of diversified answers in each of 
these counties, and that the percentages of the more numerous replies are practically 
the same. There are, of course, some differences, but it is difficult to speak of these 
in any conclusive way because of the unequal number and proportion of replies in 
the separate counties. 

SALARY OF MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS. 

Tables 50 and 51 show the salaries paid to men and women teachers, respectively. 
Of the total number reporting, 1,369 teachers, 1,070, or 80 per cent, were women; 
and 299, or 20 per cent, men, which is practically the same proportion as is found to 
exist in the 20 counties of the State (Ch. 11).^^ 

The median salary for men teachers is $406, which is just $6 higher than that for 
women, namely $400, showing that the average salaries paid men and women teachers 

" See page 8. 



SALARIES. 



73 



in the one-teacher rural schools on the basis of these replies is practically the same. 
This is further emphasized by the fact that both in the case of the men and women 
teachers, the range in salaries extends from |315 to $700. However, the quartile 
deviation of the salaries received by women teachers is $53, which is twice the quartile 
deviation of the salaries received by the men, indicating a much greater variation and 
a wider distribution about the mid-point of the salaries paid women teachers as com- 
pared with those paid to men teachers. Let us now look at these tables from the 
point of view of the relationship existing between the experience of men and women 
teachers and their respective salaries. 

Table 50. — Relation of years of experience of men teachers to salaries. 





Years of experience. 


To- 
tal. 


Salary. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




9 


10 
1 


11 


12- 

14 


15- 
17 

1 


18- 
20 

1 


21- 
23 


24- 
26 


27- 
29 


30- 
32 


33- 
35 


36- 
39 


40- 
49 


50- 
59 


60 


S300-$324...:.... 


21 


5 


17 


4 


1 




1 




52 


325- 349 




















1 


350- 374 


7 
3 
2 
2 


4 
2 


6 
2 
2 


'"4 
5 
1 
2 
3 
1 


2 
4 
7 

"i 

1 


"4 
7 
1 
3 
3 


2 
2 
4 




1 
2 
5 


1 

'"3 
1 


"2 


2 

1 

14 


1 
3 
12 






















oq 


375- 399 


1 
11 






1 
5 


1 

3 


i 


1 
5 


2 
3 
2 


"3 


::: 


39 


400- 424 

425- 449 


7 
1 


9 


113 
9 


450- 474 














1 
2 

1 










1 
1 






9 


475- 499 


4 
1 
















3 




4 


"i 


3 


1 


1 






28 


500- 524 


... 


1 


"i 


6 


525- 549 










1 


























4 


550- 574 --. 




















1 












2 


575- 599 












1 




















1 














3 


60O- 624 












1 
































1 


625- 649 






1 










































1 


650- 674 
















































1 


675- 699 






10 










































1 




40 


15 


31 


17 


17 










7 


3 


21 


17 


16 


8 


14 


7 


7 


7 


~7 


8 


3 






Total 


20 


9 


7 


8 


299 







Median years of experience, 7; median salary, $406. r=.20 P. E.= ±.037. 

Table 51. — Relation of years of experience of women teachers to salaries. 





Years of experience. 


To- 

tal. 


Salary. 





1 


2 


3 


4 

7 


5 

1 


6 


7 
3 


8 
2 


9 

"i 


10 
1 


11 


12^ 
14 

1 


15- 
17 


18- 
20 


21- 
23 

1 


24^ 
26 


27- 
29 


30- 
32 

1 


33- 
35 


36- 
39 

1 


40- 
49 


50- 
59 


60 


$300-8324 


135 
3 

53 

17 

17 

17 

6 

15 

1 

1 

1 


31 

1 

8 

20 

12 

2 

11 

16 


66 
1 
22 
17 
10 

I 

14 
2 
6 
1 


13 


263 


325- 349 
















6 


350- 374 


13 
20 
11 
6 
1 
7 
3 
6 
1 


if 
18 
15 
2 
10 
3 
5 
3 
2 
1 


1 

13 
7 
10 
1 
14 
2 
5 
1 


2 
15 
9 
6 
3 
6 
1 
4 
1 
2 


1 
10 
9 
1 
1 
6 
3 

"i 

1 
1 


1 
6 

2 

"'i 

1 

3 
4 






























106 


375- 399 


6 
11 

"5 
2 

"2 


5 
10 

1 
1 

1 

"2 
2 


6 
4 

1 

"4 

1 
2 


6 
22 
2 
3 
10 

"4 
1 
1 


3 

13 

2 

1 


2 
7 
1 
3 
1 
1 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 












1 
4 








164 


400- 424 

425- 449 


4 


6 

1 


5 
2 


2 


3 


3 
1 






190 
76 


450- 474 








40 


475- 499 




1 


2 
2 


1 












116 


500- 524 










26 


525- 549 






1 






1 






42 


550- 574 








18 


575- 699 




1 
















10 


600- 624 










1 




1 




1 




1 






7 


625- 649 


■ 1 ■ 
















3 








4 


650- 674 








1 


































1 


675- 700 






1 

82 








































1 


Total 


266 101 


152 


89 


55 


49 


37 


21 


27 


23 


18 


53 


23 


23 


6 


9 


12 


5 


6 


6 


6 


1 


1 


1,070 











Median years of experience, 3.2; median salary, S400. r=.20 P. E.=±.0126. 

RELATION OF SALARY TO YEARS OF ^EXPERIENCE. 

Among the group of 113 men teachers in Table 50 receiving a salary in the class 
interval $400-$424, the median step, it is evident that their experience ranges from 
to 50 or more years. The median number of years of experience of this group is 
15; the quartile deviation is 8.5 years, showing that there is an unusually wide varia- 



74 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLiVANlA. 

tion in experience. Since the salaries of 52 teachers are found in the step $300-$325, 
it is apparent that they are holding provisional certificates, which by process of the 
law insure them a minimum salary of $315, and account for their experience-limit of 
3 or less years (with the exception of 5 teachers, as shown in the table) since the State 
law stipulates that pro\asional certificates can be renewed yearly by examination for 
a period of only 5 years. The teachers in this group having more than 5 years' ex- 
perience probably held provisional certificates before the above provision of the 
recently passed Pennsylvania school code became effective.^* 

The median years of experience of the entire grovip of men teachers as shown in 
Table 50 is 7. It will be noticed that practically all the teachers receive a salary less 
than $425 and have had less than 7 years' experience. 1 n other words, only 30 teachers 
or approximately one-tenth of the teachers, are included in the group receiving more 
than $425 salary and having seven or more years of experience. This means that in 
the case of 110 men teachers, or 37 per cent of the group who receive a salary in the 
median step $400-|424 or less, experience — at least beyond the seventh year — is not a 
factor in determining the increase in salary. It will be seen by inspection that there 
is little positive correlation in this group beyond the median salary and the median 
years of experience. The coefficient of correlation was found to be r=.20 (Pearson's 
Product-Moment Method). 

The replies of 1,070 women teachers, as shown in Table 51, indicate that the largest 
number, 2(i3 teachers, receive a salary of $315. With the exception of five teSchers, 
all of this number report five or fewer years of experience, with 135, or approximately 
50 per cent, new teachers without experience. Half of the entire number of women 
teachers, 535, receive a salary less than $400, and have also had less than 3.2 years of 
experience. These teachers, like the men teachers, show the greatest range of ex- 
perience of to 50 years for the class interval in which the median salary is found, 
namely, $400-$424. 

By drawing a line through the median years of experience, 3.2, and the median 
salary, $400, nearly 400 of the total group will be included in the small quadrant from 
$315 to $400 salary and from to 3 years of experience. 

Just as the same amount of salary is paid to a group of teachers having a wide range 
in years of experience, so it can be seen at a glance that there is an equal diversity 
in the salaries paid to those having had the same amount of experience. 

While there is a positive correlation between years of experience and salary of .20 
in the case of the men teachers and .20 in that of the women teachers (Pearson's 
Product-Moment Method), it is evident from the tables that these relationships 
are probably due to the grouping of salaries and years of experience about the 
median points, respectively. It is also apparent that experience seems to center 
about 2 and 4 years, while salaries group themselves about $385 and $420. The 
certificate laws in Pennsylvania undoubtedly have a great bearing on this posi- 
tive relationship in the lower part of the range, since it will be recalled from the 
previous chapter that 2 and 4 years of experience are required by law of appli- 
cants for professional and permanent certificates, and also that $10 and $15 monthly 
minimum salary increases above the minimum salary for provisional certificates are 
required by the same law for each successive type of certificate.^^ Of course the 
working out of the minimum salary law in itself would in a sense automatically cause 
this positive relationship. 

The data seem to establish the conclusion that there is less positive relationship 
than might be expected in ascending the scale of experience and salary, and that the 
falling off is most marked above the various medians indicating very Little relation- 
ship between higher salaries and longer years of experience. 
• 

n Pa. Sch. Laws, and app., 1919, Art. XIII, sec. 1302. 
15 Pennsylvania School Laws, 1917, Art. XII, sec. 1210. 



SAI.ARIES. 



75 



NUMBEE OF INCREASES IN SALARY AS RELATED TO TEARS OF EX- 
PERIENCE. 

Since it has been shown that the factor of years of experience in general does not 
determine the amount of increase in salaries, let us now examine Table 52 to see what 
relation, if any, exists between the number of increases and years of experience. 
"While over 500, or one-half the number of the 1,018 teachers submitting this informa- 
tion, have a median experience of 6.4 years,, they had their salaries increased only 
three times. In other words, the average number of years of experience is slightly 
more than twice the average number of increases in salary for the same group of teach- 
ers. At first glance one would think this to be quite a good median relationship, but 
after studying the table more carefully, it is evident that there is probably very little 
correlation beyond 12 years of experience and 5 increases in salary. A large propor- 
tion of teachers receiving 3 and 4 increases, respectively, have been teachino- mor- 
than 12 years. 

Table 52. — Relation between number of increases in salary and years of experience. 



Years of experience. 


Number of increases in salary. 







1 


2 3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Total. 


1 


33 

36 
10 
10 

4 
4 

"l 

1 


62 

113 

49 

21 

16 

11 

5 

4 

3 

1 

1 

1 




















95 

157 




8 
21 
35 

24 

30 

20 

10 

10 

16 

6 

7 

4 

4 

1 

1 

4 

""2 

""3 
2 




















7 
16 
17 
15 
16 

9 

9 

8 

4 
11 

5 

8 

3 

1 

7 

6 

4 

2 

5 

^. 
















87 




4 
1 
3 
2 

6 
4 
5 














86 
















62 


7 














63 
















43 
















30 


10 


2 
3 












29 














33 


12 


4 1 2 












17 


13 

14 


10 
5 
7 
9 
2 
8 
4 
4 
9 
2 
3 
1 
3 
1 
3 
1 
2 
1 
1 
4 
3 
3 
1 
3 

j" 


1 

2 
5 
8 
3 
6 
2 
2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
4 
2 
2 
5 
3 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 












30 
16 


15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 




'"'i' 


""2 
2 
1 

""'"3" 
1 










24 
22 
9 
27 
13 
12 
17 
13 
6 
5 
6 
5 
8 
4 

12 
5 
16 
17 
13 
8 


24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30-31 

32-33 

34-35 

36-37 






...... 

'"'i' 
1 


1 
""2 

""i' 
"""s" 

2 
1 


1 
1 

""2 
3 
2 
2 

4 
2 

""i' 
3 


'""i" 

""'i" 
"" '5" 

"■""2" 

3 
1 

2 

1 


'""i" 

1 
1 
1 


..'.'.'.. 




40-44 

45-49 ;;;;;■ 

60 and above. . -. 


"l 
1 




'"'i' 


""2 

...... 


"i" 

1 




1 


6 
14 
3 
g 


Total 


101 


288 


213 


169 


120 


74 


31 


16 


6 




1 






1,019 



= .50 



P. E.= ±.016. 



The important fact to be conveyed by this table is that the range in years of ex- 
perience for teachers who have had no increase in salary is from 1 to 9; for those who 
have had 2 increases in salary, from 2 to 40; and for those who have had 3 increases the 
range is from 3 to 50 or more years of experience, with a median of 9.5 years. The 
data seem to show rather conclusively that teachers, at least beyond the median years 
of experience, 6.4 years, in many cases have not had the number of increases in salary 
determined by the years of experience. There is a positive correlation for the group 
as a whole, which can be indicated by r=.50 P. E. = ±.016 (Pearson's Product- 
Moment Method). 



76 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



AGE OF MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS AS RELATED TO SALARY. 

Tables 53 and 54 show the salaries paid to men and women teachers on the basis of 
their ages. It will be seen that in Table 53 a large majority of the men teachers are 
25 or less years of age. Beyond this age there seems to be practically no positive 
relationship between ages and amount of salary received. This can be illustrated 
best by studying the group of teachers recei^vdng the salary of the median step, $400- 
1424, in which the distribution of ages extends all the way from 19 to 69 years. Sine© 
the median age of men teachers reporting is 27.3 years, it is especially interesting that 
the ages of the middle 50 per cent of this group of 118 teachers range from 28to 45 
years. In looking over the table more carefully, it is noteworthy that only 33 teachers 
beyond the age of 25, or approximately one-tenth of the group, receive more than $420. 

Table 53. — Relation of age of men teachers to salary. 



Ages. 


$300- 
$324 


$325- 
$349 


$350- 
$374 


$375- 
$399 


$400- 

$424 


$425- 
$449 


$450- 
$474 


$475- 
$499 


$500- 
$524 


$525- 
$549 


$550- 
$574 


$625- 
$649 


$700 


Total. 


18 


13 
19 
13 
11 
5 
2 
1 


...... 

1 


3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
1 
1 
2 






1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
...... 
















17 


19 


....„ 

3 

2 
5 
5 
6 

4 
5 

1 
4 
2 
1 
2 


1 
2 

■■"e" 
1 

4 
7 
4 
















24 


20 


1 
1 

""2 

""2 














26 


21 


1 
2 
3 
2 
1 




1 








22 


22 








20 


23 










1 


15 


24 


...... 


1 






15 


25 








19 


26 














8 


27 






1 


















6 


28 








7 
2 
5 
3 
3 
4 
4 
1 
4 
4 
1 
4 
3 
2 
6 
4 
2 
8 
1 
5 
2 


















8 


29 












1 

1 












7 


30 






1 


1 


""i" 


1 










11 


31 . . 


1 












6 


32 




1 














6 


33 






















4 


34 






1 


1 


















6 


35 






















1 


36 








3 

1 


i 
















8 


37 










1 
1 












6 


38 










1 












3 


39 






1 
1 


1 
3 












6 


40 






















7 


41 






1 






1 










4 


42 








1 




2 




1 




9 


43 






















4 


44 
















1 










3 


45 








1 












1 




10 


46 








1 






:::::: 




2 


47 




1 




1 




2 
1 
1 
2 

1 
3 












9 


48 


















3 


49 
























1 


SO 








2 
1 
2 


7 
5 
2 

4 


1 


2 






1 






15 


55 






2 
1 










9 


60 






2 


1 












11 


















4 






























Total . . 


65 


3 


29 


61 


118 


14 


11 


25 


4 


2 


1 


1 


1 


335 



r=.41. 



P. E.= ±.0312. 



SALARIES. 
Table 54. — Relation of age of women teachers to salary. 



11 



Ages. 


$300- 
$324 


$325- 
$349 


$350- 

$374 


$375- 
$399 


$400- 
$424 


$425- 
$449 


$450- 
$474 


$475- 
$499 


$500- 
$524 


$525- 
$549 


$550- 
$574 


$575- 
$599 


$600- 
$624 


$625- 
$649 


$650- 
$699 


$700 


To- 
tal. 


18 


78 
80 
78 
29 
15 
8 
5 


"2 

2 
1 

2 

2 
1 
1 


29 

26 

IS 

15 

13 

9 

3 

5 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 


5 
17 
12 
30 
13 
20 
12 
12 
5 
8 
6 
8 
3 
2 
1 
..... 

2 

1 


3 
5 
11 
14 
12 
5 
12 
8 
1 
6 
8 
4 
6 
8 
6 
2 
5 
4 
5 


6 
19 
15 
12 
10 
9 
5 
3 


1 
6 
6 
13 
3 
6 
1 
1 


2 
12 
19 
7 
12 
12 
3 
3 
1 
6 
2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
1 
2 
1 
3 


















124 


19 


1 
2 










_ 






166 


20 


1 














164 


21 


1 
1 












123 


22 


2 
1 
5 
1 

'"2 

"'i' 

3 

' 1 

1 


4 
3 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 

""i' 


1 










87 


23 










75 


24 


2 
1 


'"2 


1 
1 

1 








52 


25 








40 


26 


2 
5 








16 


27 


5 


1 








1 


1 


39 


28 


1 
1 
2 
3 


1 

1 


1 
2 




22 


29 






..... 

""i" 

1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
..... 


1 
1 
3 
2 


1 






25 


30 








1 


22 


31 


3 
2 

1 






1 






25 


32 












15 


33 




2 














7 


34 


















9 


35 






1 
1 
1 


















g 


36 










1 












12 


37 .' 








1 

1 




1 












1 


4 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 


1 

1 
1 


3 
1 

2 




1 


..... 






13 


39 1 
















40 i 




1 


1 
1 

"'i' 
1 








2 








9 


41 i 


















3 


42 1 




1 


1 
1 
1 








1 














4 


43 




..... 


2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 


1 
1 


1 












8 


45 
















7 


46 1 






1 














3 


48 










1 
















4 


49 








1 


















2 


50 


1 






2 
1 


2 
1 






1 






2 
1 
1 






1 


10 


55 ,. 




1 






1 






g 


60 and above 








1 


1 








3 






























Total... 


307 


11 


136 


164 


143 


100 


49 


115 


22 


22 


16 


8 


13 


2 


1 


3 


1,112 



r = .42. P. E. = ±.016. 

In the case of the women teachers, one can easily see by inspection of Table 54 that 
there is a positive correlation existing between ages and salaries. It is rather 
surprising too, that as many as 500 women teachers are represented in the quadrant 
bounded by the medians 22 years in age and $400 in salary. The largest range in 
salary, $315 to $700, is found at the age of 27, and at least 80 per cent of the entire 
group of women teachers range in age from 18 to 27 years. The same condition holds 
true in this group as in the case of the men teachers, in that the range of ages is largest 
in the median salary step. However, we can not help but observe the long range in 
ages in the case of practically each salary paid, which can be well illustrated in the 
first class interval, $300-$324, in which the largest proportion of the entire group 
receiving the smallest salary, range in ages from 18 to 32 years. 

Probably the outstanding fact in the data just presented is the scattering of cases 
both in respect to salary and age. While there is a definite positive relationship 
evident in the case of both men and women teachers between the age 22, or possibly 
25 years, and a salary of $420 or less, on the other hand, there is practically an entire 
lack of positive relationship between ages and salaries in ascending the scales beyond 
these points. The relationships expressed in figures of correlation are r=.41 for men 
teachers and r=.42 for women teachers (Pearson's Product-Movement Method). In 
other words for the entire group of men teachers and women teachers there is only 
a slight tendency for older teachers to receive the higher salaries. 
73438°— 22 6 



*9f »• 



78 



STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 



YEARS OF EDUCATION AS RELATED TO SALARY. 

In Table 55 the teachers are listed according to the number of years of education 
which they have had beyond the elementary schools, comprising the work done in 
high schools, normal schools, and colleges. In comparing the distribution in educa- 
tion ranging from to 8 years mth salaries received, it is at once noticeable that there 
is practically no definite tendency shown, as evidenced by the negligible correlation 
r=.04. Teachers with years of secondary or higher education receive salaries 
from $315 to $600, while those with 4 or 5 years' academic or professional training be- 
yond the elementary grades also receive salaries extending over the same range, mth 
the largest number of teachers in each case receiving the minimum salary of $315. 
From the standpoint of salaries, the group receiving $315 and the group receiving 
$520 have secondary training extending over the same range of to 6 years. These 
rather striking data further emphasize the fact that school authorities frequently fail 
to recognize by adequate tangible reward the education of teachers secured either 
before entering service or during service. It also further helps to establish the evi- 
dence previously expressed that years of experience, type of certificate, and local 
prerogative on the part of school boards are the plredominating factors in determining 
salaries rather than academic or professional preparation in educational institutions. 
It would seem that the very low salaries paid rural teachers and the nonrecognition of 
standard practice in establishing salary schedules are directly or indirectly the prin- 
cipal causes of most of the unfavorable phases of the status of the rural teacher as 
brought out in this study. 

Table 55. — Relation between the years of education beyond the elementary school and 

salaries. 



Salary. 


Years of education. 


Total. 





i 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


$300-$324 


85 

5 

13 

67 

85 

21 

11 

24 

6 

8 

3 

1 

2 


45 
2 
5 
33 
38 
10 
6 
6 


36 

"■3" 
33 

46 
12 
8 
10 
2 
3 
1 
2 


51 

2 

5 

30 

45 

11 

5 

11 

1 

4 

6 

2 

2 


62 
1 

16 

41 

36 

13 

5 

18 

3 

5 

1 

1 


60 


12 


2 






353 


$325-$349 






10 


$350-$374 .... 


35 
23 
35 
18 
4 
13 
1 
3 


3 

5 
10 
12 

3 

8 
2 
1 
1 








80 


$375-$399 


5 
13 
11 

2 
7 
1 
1 


2 

4 
3 


i' 


239 


$400-$424 


312 


$42.5-$449 


112 


$450-8474 . . 


44 


$475-5499 


2 




99 


j500-$524 


17 


$525-5549 


1 




30 


$550-1574 


13 


$575-$599 . . 


1 






8 


$60O-$624 


1 


1 






7 


$625-8649 










$65O-$70O 






1 




1 












2 




















Total 


331 


153 


157 


175 


203 


193 


58 


43 


12 


1 


1,326 







Median salary =$398. Median years=2,l. r=.04. P. E.= ±.018. 



i^^ff 



Chapter VIII. 
SUMMARY. 



1. This study of the status of the rural teacher in Pennsylvania is based principally 
on a questionnaire distributed among the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools of 
18 counties of the State. Out of the 1,450 questionnaires returned, 1,110, or 76.5 per 
cent, were answered by women j and 340, or 23.5 per cent, by men, averaging 62 per 
cent Ojf the teachers enrolled in the one-teacher schools in each county respectively. 
Pennsylvania, with 10,038 one-teacher schools, ranks third among all the States of 
the United States, being outnumbered by Illinois and Iowa. Over 53 per cent of the 
teachers under county superintendents' supervision are teaching in one and two 
teacher schools, of which 42 per cent are in the one-teacher schools. The number of 
one-teacher schools varies throughout the 66 counties from 22 to 361, with the median 
county having 150. These counties range in size from 130 to 1,200 square miles, but 
the number of square miles to each one-teacher school ranges from 2.4 to 17.8 square 
miles. 

2. In analyzing the social and economic status of the rural teacher it has been found 
that the percentage of men teachers, 24 per cent as compared with 76 per cent of women 
teachers, is greater in Pennsylvania than in any State of the Union for which there are 
data available, and greater than in the United States as a whole. The average age of 
beginning teachers is 19.2, but the ages of teachers range from 18 to 65, with an average 
of 22 years for women teachers, and of 26.7 for men teachers. Eighty-one per cent of 
the rural teachers are born and reared in the country districts' and 19 per cent in 
boroughs and cities. One-half of the teachers participate on Saturday and Sunday in 
the social life of the community in which they are teaching. 

Sixty per cent of the teachers pay for board and room amounts ranging from less than 
$50 to more than $250, with an average cost of $121 per year. On a monthly basis the 
average cost is $16, with the lowest amount $6 and the highest $30 or more per month. 
Only 9 per cent of the teachers are obliged to meet these living expenses for the entire 
calendar year. These facts substantiate the prevalent belief that living expenses for 
rural teachers are on a much lower scale than those of urban teachers. 

Twenty-five per cent of the teachers, of whom most are men, receive an income of 
$200 or less, in addition to their teaching salary. It is rather surprising that approx- 
im"ately 40 per cent of the teachers have saved on an average approximately $100 per 
year from their meager salaries. Among this thrifty group are included the small 
percentage who carry life insurance and are members of beneficial associations, ex- 
pending as dues from $5.20 to $150 per year. Practically all in this group subscribe for 
educational magazines and reference books in afiiounts from $0.50 to $50 per year. 

3. Investigation of the working conditions of rural teachers shows that their schools 
range in size from 3 to 68 pupils, with an average of 26. The number of grades varies 
from 2 to 10, with the median falling among the group having 7 grades; however, 
41.8 per cent of the schools are organized as eight-grade schools. The median number 
of class recitations is 25.6, varying from 9 to 50 per day; and 25 per cent of the teachers 
have school programs of 30 or more recitations per day. The data clearly indicate 
an extremely low correlation between the number of class recitations per day and 

79 



80 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

the number of pupils enrolled, showing that a great proportion of the smaller schools 
are among the group having the larger number of daily recitations. 

Only 31 per cent of the schools have libraries containing from 10 to 400 volumes, 
but 43 per cent of the rural teachers have access to libraries apart from the school li- 
brary, for obtaining books and materials to aid them in their teaching. Since teachers 
in Pennsylvania are obliged to attend county institutes, it is quite surprising that 72 
per cent voluntarily attend regularly the county local institute intended to help train 
teachers in service. Furthermore, as stated preAdously, teachers subscribe generally 
for educational and other current magazines of the type listed in Table 18 of the con- 
text. , 

The fact that rural teachers are supervised only from 15 minutes to 8 hours per 
school year and that the superintendent makes on an average one visit each year of 
from 30 minutes to one hour shows plainly that one of Pennsylvania's greatest needs is 
such a complete revision of the system of rural school supervision as shall involve 
much greater supervisory assistance. It should be recalled that county superintend- 
ents have no assistance in their work unless they have 200 or more teachers under 
their jurisdiction. In the counties that have assistant county superintendents, 
the average time spent by them in visiting each school, in addition to that spent by 
the county superintendent, is 2 hours per year. According to the statement of 69 
per cent of the teachers, one or more school directors have visited their schools at least 
once during the year. Upon the impression gained from this -visit frequently depends 
the election or reelection of a teacher, since, according to the replies of 70. per cent of 
the teachers, little or no consideration is given by the directors to the judgment of 
county or assistant county superintendents. 

There seems to be very Little community cooperation in the rural districts, as- evi- 
denced by the fact that only 28 per cent of the teachers reported the existence of 
parent-teacher organizations or any other type of community activity in connection 
with their schools. Since, in addition to this, very few patrons or residents of the 
various school communities take any interest in the schools, it would seem that a 
vital need in the rehabilitation of the rural schools is the development of an increased 
support and of a more sympathetic interest not only in the personal welfare of the 
teachers on the part of patrons and citizens, but also in the teacher's professional 
status and opportunities for growth on the part of administrative and supervisory 
officers. 

4. In summarizing the academic and professional training of rural teachers, Pennsyl- 
vania has a very low standing in comparison with other States. Eighty per cent of 
the teachers received their elementary education in township schools in periods of 
5 to 12 years, and the remaining 20 per cent in boroughs from 5 to 11 years, the average 
length being 68.2 months and 70.8 months, respectively, on the basis of the average 
length of school year for townships and boroughs. Thirty-nine per cent of the same 
group of teachers had had no training in a secondary school; and of the 61 per cent 
who attended secondary schools, only 22 per cent completed a four-years' course. 
It should be stated that some of the teachers who had never attended a recognized 
secondary school had received some academic instruction in high-school subjects 
given in the ninth and tenth grades in one-teacher elementary schools. 

As to the professional training of this group of teachers, 76 per cent had no normal 
school training, and of the remaining 24 per cent attending a normal school for periods 
ranging from 6 weeks to 4 years in length, only 18 per cent completed the course. 
The extreme variations in preliminary training, evidenced from the fact that 55 per 
cent of the normal school graduates had not had secondary training, as well as the 
varied amount of time actually spent by teachers in preparation in normal schools, 
are largely due to the normal school system, which for a number of years received 
students with all types of training from the completion of an elementary school 
coiirse to that of a standard four years' secondary course. 



SUMMAKY. 81 

As regards further training during service, 62 per cent have had no academic or 
professional schooling since entering the profession. Of the 38 per cent who had such 
supplementary education 10 per cent attended summer private academies, 8 per cent 
summer local or county normal schools, 12 per cent summer State normal schools, 
and 6 per cent summer colleges, all ranging from one to four terms of six weeks' 
duration. The determining factor in the selection of an institution was found to be 
the type of certificate held and the institution most accessible. 

Since only 13 counties have State normal schools Avithin their boundaries, and since 
the 53 remaining counties must depend in a large measure upon private academies 
and summer county or local normal schools to provide opportunities for teacher train- 
ing, it is evident that one of the pressing problems before the State is the provision for 
properly organized training facilities in high schools, in county training schools, or in 
additional State normal schools, if the supply of educationally and professionally 
trained teachers shall in any way meet the demand in the rural districts. 

5. Regarding the certification of rural teachers in Pennsylvania, there is un- 
doubtedly need for more exacting certification laws, as well as for the establishment 
of a larger number of accredited teacher training institutions. In 1919-20, on the 
basis of a study of the directories of. 28 counties, including all the teachers, the per- 
centage of the various types of certificates held by teachers in one-teacher schools is 
as follows: Provisional 52, professional 24, permanent 10, and normal school 14, with 
such extreme va,riations among counties as 19 to 73 per cent in the case of provisional 
certificates; 2 to 40 per cent, professional certificates; 1.9 to 36 per cent permanent 
certificates; and 0.5 per cent (1 out of 179 teachers) to 68 per cent (147 out of 216 teach- 
ers) normal school certificates. The data further emphasized the fact that 76 per cent 
of the teachers hold provisional and professional certificates, obtained through exami- 
nations given exclusively by the 66 county superintendents of the State. 

In the two and more than two-teacher schools, 25 per cent of the teachers hold normal- 
school certificates, and 32 per cent provisional certificates, in contrast with the 14 per 
cent and 52 per cent, respectively, in the one-teacher schools in the same counties. 
This inequitable distribution of the qualifications of teachers, as evidenced by certifi- 
cates, is still further emphasized in the fact that 58 per cent in the borough elementary 
schools of the same counties are normal-school graduates, while only 6 per cent of the 
teachers hold the provisional — the lowest type of certificate. 

Examination of the certificate situation of five typical counties over a period of three 
years, 1917-1919, showed a tendency toward marked increase in the number of pro- 
visional certificates and a consequent decrease in the number of normal-school cer- 
tificates, in spite of .the fact that the county showing the largest decrease in normal- 
school graduates had a normal school located within its boundaries. 

The median experience of the teachers on the basis of their certificates is for pro- 
visional certificates 0.9 year, for normal-school certificates 4.5, for professional cer- 
tificates 4.9, and for permanent certificates 15.9 years. From the standpoint of age, 
the average for teachers holding provisional certificates is 20.3 years, professional, 24.8 
years, normal school, 23.9 years, and permanent, 37.3 years. 

In considering the certificates of the teachers on the basis of their academic and 
professional training, the largest proportion of those holding permanent and normal- 
school certificates or diplomas have had no training in secondary schools. Of the 
number completing a foiir-years' course in a secondary school, the largest proportion 
hold pro\isional certificates and only 6 per cent have obtained permanent or hie cer- 
tificates. 

6. The experience of teachers in the one-teacher rural schools averages 3.7 years, 
ranging from the "beginner" to the one having had 55 years of teaching service. The 
average experience for men teachers is 7 years, and for women teachers 3.2 years. 
The investigation also showed that the average number of places taught by the entire 
group is 3, and that 24 per cent taught in from 5 to 20 different schools. The correla- 



82 STATUS OF RURAL, TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

tion between the number of places taught and the years of experience was found to 
be very high, namely r=.79. 

The facts concerning the stability of the teaching force for the entire State over a 
three-year period indicate thatin the 10,000 one-teacher schools, 4,100 would have three 
different teachers, 4,400 one teacher for two years and one teacher for one year, and 
only 1,500 one teacher over the entire three-year period. This unusually high pro- 
portion of instability of the teaching corps should receive the serious and immediate 
attention of the educational leaders of the State. 

In examining the teachers' directories of 18 counties of the State for 1919-20, 30 
per cent of the 2,640 teachers in one-teacher schools are ' 'beginners," and 37 per cent 
of the teachers, while experienced, are now teaching in a new position, making a 
total of 67 per cent of the one-teacher schools of these counties with either an experi- 
enced teacher in a new position or a new teacher without any teaching experience. 
On the other hand, in the two-teacher schools of the same counties, only 12 per cent 
are new teachers without any experience and 33 per cent are experienced teachers in 
a new position. This again demonstrates the tremendous handicap of the one-teacher 
schools as compared with the other types of schools under county supervision. 

On the basis of the facts in this study and of others referred to in this monograph , 
the schools of Pennsylvania will require each year to meet their needs between 5,000 
and 6,000 new teachers. From the fact that normal-school principals tell us that 
on an average only 15 per cent of their graduating classes enter one-teacher rural 
schools, it is evident that, on the basis of 2,000 State normal-school graduates, there 
are only approximately 300 trained teachers available to fill the 3,000 Aacancies in 
one-teacher schools. Surely it is most imperative that additional training facilities 
as well as a full capacity of the State normal schools now in existence must be pro- 
vided, or the vacancies throughout the State will necessarily have to be filled with 
an inadequate and poorly trained teaching force. 

7. ^According to the data for the year 1918-19, the salaries of the teachers in one- 
teacher schools averaged $411, while those of teachers in two and more than two- 
teacher schools averaged $519. This difference of $109 in salary between the one 
teacher and two and more than two-teacher schools frequently occurs in the same 
township under the same board of education, thus specifically indicating the great 
inequalities in the educational conditions and in teacher standards existing in these 
types of schools. The median salary of borough teachers in the same counties is $588, 
which is $69 higher than the median salary, $519, paid to teachers in the two and 
more than two teacher schools, and $177 higher than the median salary, $411, paid 
to the teacher in the one-teacher schools. This salary situation explains at least in a 
large measure the instability of the teaching force among the smaller villages and 
rirral districts. 

The length of school term, always a determining factor in explaining teachers' 
salaries, was found to average in townships 7.6 months, and in boroughs, 8.6 months. 
The minimum school term of 7 months required by law exists in 58 per cent of the 
townships, and in only 11 per cent of the boroughs. The significance of these data 
is that the teachers in the one-teacher schools receive on an average $14 per school 
month less than the teachers in the two and more than two-teacher schools in the 
same townships with the same length of school term, and frequently controlled by 
the same board of education. It would seem that these facts furnish a strong argu- 
ment in favor of some scheme for equalizing educational standards. This might be 
brought about by an equitable salary measure for the rural teachers in the one-teacher 
schools, such as the "bonus" scheme as recognized in the Wisconsin salary law and 
to some degree in the Woodruff salary bill for Pennsylvania, or by some radical change 
in the form of unit of administration, such as a county-local unit with more centralized 
control over local units, oY a county unit with a small county board of education. 
In 75 per cent of the cases school boards pay teachers the minimum salary required by 



SUMMARY. 83 

law and do not seem to recognize the academic or professional training of teachers 
either before entering service or while in service. In increasing salaries their main 
consideration is apparently such mandatory legislation as the kind of certificate held 
and the minimum salary law. In only 10 per cent of the cases was it reported that 
school boards considered such factors as experience and efficiency in placing teachers 
and determining salary schedules. 

The correlation between years of experience and salaries of men and women teachers 
was found to be very low: namely, r=.20 and r=.20, respectively, indicating that 
teachers receiAdng, for example, a salary of |420 might have from no experience to 50 
years of experience and at the same time teachers with two or three years of 
experience received salaries from |315 to |700 . The fairly low correlation of the number 
of increases in salary to the number of years of experience offers further proof that 
experience is practically an insignificant factor. 

These findings are a recapitulation or a summary of the outstanding facts con- 
cerning the different phases of the status of the rural teachers. It should be kept in 
mind that it was not primarily the purpose of this survey to offer remedial or con- 
structive measures in the solution of the problems revealed by the investigation 
but rather to make such observations and suggestions as the evidence safely warrants. 
It will, however, serve its purpose if the facts and conclusions set forth, and the 
nethods used in establishing their reliability, will help constructively to solve one 
of the greatest problems in the field of American education — the problem of the rural 
school. 



LIST OF REFERENCES. 

Administration and support of the Colorado school system. U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion. Bulletin, 1917, no. 5. pp. 74, 76. 

An educational study of Alabama. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1919, 
no. 41. p. 349. 

Annual reports and teachers' directories. Issued by county superintendents of 
Pennsylvania, 1918-19, 1919-20. 

Alexander, Carter. County training schools of Wisconsin. Seventh annual school- 
men's week. Proceedings, p. 93. University of Pennsylvania. 

Arp, J. B. Rural education and the consolidated school. New York, World Book 
Co., 1918. 

Bagley, W. C. The Smith-Towner bill and the preparation of rural teachers. School 
and Home Education, 38: 158, April, 1919. 

Becht, J. George. A study of school consolidation and transportation. Sixth 
annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, p. 197. University of Pennsylvania. 

Betts, G. H. Rural school consolidation and transportation. Sixth annual school- 
men's week. Proceedings, p. 192. University of Pennsylvania. 

Bock, Thomas A. Consolidation and transportation in Pennsylvania. Sixth annual 
schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 200-307. University of Pennsylvania. 

Bonner, H. R. Statistics of State school systems, 1917-18. U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion. Bulletin, 1920, no. 11. p. 42. 

Burnham, Ernest. The preparation of rural teachers. Fifth annual schoolmen's 
week. Proceedings, pp. 169-185. University of Pennsylvania. 

■ The training of teachers for the rural schools of Pennsylvania. Fourth 

annual schoolm-en's week. Proceedings, pp. 150-167. University of Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Carney, Mabel. Should rural teachers be prepared in high schools? Seventh annual 
schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 99-110. University of Pennsylvania. 

Twenty-third annual report of the inspector of State high schools for Min- 
nesota (1916), pp. 17-19. Department of Education, St. Paul. 

High school board rules. Bidletin 45, May, 1916. pp. 24-30. Department 

of Education, St. Paul. 

Couiitry life and the country school. Rowe, Peterson & Co. 

Coffman, L. D. The social composition of the teaching population. Teachers 

College, Columbia University, 1911. (Series No. 41.) 
Committee report. A constructive program for the improvement of rural schools, 

in Pennsylvania. Fifth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 167-169. 

University of Pennsylvania. 
Cook, Katherine M. and Monahan, A. C. Report of an inquiry into the administra- 
tion and support of the Colorado school system. U. S. Bureau of Education. 

In their Bulletin, 1917, no. 5. pp. 74, 76. 
Cubberly, Ellwood P. Rural life and education. New York, Macmillan Co. 
Eggleston and Bruere. The work of the rural school. New York, Harper & Bros. 
Engelhardt, F. The teaching profession in the State of New York. In Annual 

report of the Assistant Commissioner of Education of New York State, 1918-19. 
Evenden, E. S. Teachers' salaries and salary schedules in the United States, 1918-19. 

The National Education Association, 1919. Commission series no. 6. 
84 



EErEEEIsrCES. 85 

Foght, H. "W. The rural school system of Minnesota. U. S. Bureau of Education, 
Bulletin, 1915, no. 20, p. 43. 

The efficiency and preparation of rural school teachers. U. S. Bureau of 

Education. Bulletin, 1914, ao. 49. 

The rural teacher and his work. New York, Macmillan Co. 

Rural teacher preparation in county training schools and high schools. U. S. 



Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1917, no. 31. 

Geographical gazetteer. New York, Rand-McNally Co. 

Harbold, P. M. Needed revision of the normal school course of study. Proceedings 
of principals of the Pennsylvania State normal schools, 1917. p. 24. Harris- 
burg, Pa. 

Larson, W. E. The Wisconsin county training schools for teachers in rural schools. 
U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1916, no. 17. 

Laws of Wisconsin relating to common schools — county training schools, 1915. Sec. 
411. 

Mirick, G. A. Supervision of rural schools. Fifth annual schoolmen's week. Pro- 
ceedings, pp. 188-191. University of Pennsylvania. 

Monahan, A. C. The status of rural education in the United States. U. S. Bureau 
of Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 8. 

and Cook, K. M. Survey of Wyoming. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 

1916, no. 29. p. 52. 

Pennsylvania. County superintendents. Annual reports and teachers' directories, 
1918-19, 1919-20. 

Pennsylvania. State Department of Public Instruction. Course of study for ele- 
mentary schools of Pennsylvania, 1918. Harrisburg, Pa., 1918. pp. 8, 9. Ma- 
terial by C. D. Koch and others. 

Eleventh annual report of high school inspectors, July, 1918. Har- 
risburg, Pa., 1918. p. 14. 

Pennsylvania State normal school catalogues. (Series of years.) 

Philips, George M. Annual report for normal schools for 1918. 

Pittenger, B. F. Rural teacher-training departments in Minnesota high schools. 
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (1914). Bulletin. 

Problems involved in the consolidation and State-aid to transportation acts in 1919. 
T. A. Bock; J. W. Sweeney; L. J. Russell; E. M. Rapp; F. E. Shambaugh; 
L. L. Driver. Seventh annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 57-78. 
University of Pennsylvania. 

Proceedings of State normal school principals. (Series of years.) 

Report of the superintendent of public instruction for Pennsylvania, 1918. pp. 372- 
601, 608-611, 633. 

Report on rural education. Committee of the Pennsylvania Educatioxial Associa- 
tion. Part IV. pp. 37-47. Harrisburg, December, 1914. 

Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1916-1918. Volume 3, p. 76. 

Rugg, H. O, Statistical methods applied to education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin 
Co. 

School laws for Pennsylvania, 1917. Art. XII, Sec. 1210. 

School laws and appendix for Pennsylvania, 1919. Art. IV, sec. 408; Art. XI, sec. 
1126; Art. XII, sec. 1210, Part 4; Art. XIII, sec. 1301-1324. 

Showalter, N. D. A handbook for rural school officers. New York, Houghton 
Mifflin Co., 1920. 

Smull's legislative handbook for Pennsylvania, 1918. p. 389. Harrisburg, Pa. 

Study of teacher shortage. Department of Public Instruction of Pennsylvania, 
1919-20. (Unpublished.) 



86 STATUS or RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

SjTQposium. Tlie supe^^ision of rural schools. The twelfth yearbook of the National 
Society for the Study of Education. Part II. 

The educational system of South Dakota. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 
1918, no. 31. pp. 114, 210, 211, 213, 231. 

The rural teacher of Nebraska. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1919, no. 20. 
pp. 21, 23, 31, 40, 53. 

Thorndike, E. L. Mental and social measurements. Teachers College, Columbia 
University. 

Updegraff, Harlan. Teachers certificates issued under general State law and regula- 
tions. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1911, no. 18. p. 96. 

Virginia pu1)lic school survey. Report to the State Educational Commission, 1919. 
pp. 135-136, 142, 333, 337. 



INDEX. 



Academic and professional training, 29-37. See also Certification. 

Age, 9-12; salaries in relation to, 76-77. 

Beginning age, U-12. 

Bibliography, 81-86. 

Board and lodging, 14-15. 

Born and reared in open country, 13. 

Borough, elementary schools, certificates, 42-43; salaries, 64-66. 

Certification, 38-52; academic preparation and professional training as related to, 48-49; and age of teachers, 

47-48; from standpoint of supplementary training during service, 49-52; relation to experience, 46-47; 

salaries in relation to, 68. 
Community interest and support, 27-28. 
Counties, certification, 43-45. 
Dependents, 16. 

Educational magazines, amounts expended for, 17. 
Elementary, number under county supervision, 6-7. 
Elementary education, professional training of teachers, 29-30. 
Experience, salaries in relation to, 73-75. 
Experience and tenin-e, 53-59. 
Grades, distribution, one-teacher schools, 19. 
Income, apart from salary, 16. 
Insurance and beneficial associations, 17. 
Libraries, schools, 21-22. 

Literature, professional, amounts expended, 17. 
Married or single, 13-14. 
Parent-teachers' organizations, 27-28. 
Parents or relatives, number living with, 13. 
Professional literature, 23-24. 

Professional training, 29-37. See also Certification. 
Pupils, number in one-teacher schools, 18-19. 
Questionnaire, 2-4. 
Eecitations, daily, number, 19-21. 

Salaries, 60-78. . 

Savings, 16. 

School boards, bases on which salaries of teaches are increased, 71-72; schools visited, 26-27. 
School term, determining factor in salaries, 66-68. 
Secondary education, professional training of teachers, 30-33. 
Social and economic status, 8-12. 
Spending week ends where teaching, 15-16. 
Supervision, county and assistant county superintendents, 24-26. 
Teachers' certificates. See Certification. 

Teachers' institutes, 22-23. \ ' 

Teaching force, stability, 54^57. 
Tenme, 53-59. 

Women, distribution by number and per cent, one-teacher schools, 8-10; salaries, 72-73. 
Working conditions, 13-28. 

87 



o 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




022 158 746 7 



